The shift in sports viewing: scale development and validation for mediated sports consumption motivation

References

• Aguinis, H., Villamor, I., & Ramani, R. S. (2021). MTurk research: Review and recommendations. Journal of Management, 47(4), 823–837. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206320969787
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bagozzi, R. P., & Yi, Y. (1988). On the evaluation of structural equation models. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 16(1), 74–94. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02723327
   Google Scholar
• Bashford, S. (2017). What you need to know about sports marketing in 2017 and beyond. Campaign. https://www.campaignlive.co.uk/article/need-know-sports-marketing-2017-beyond/1424873
   Google Scholar
• Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497–529. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bearden, W. O., Netemeyer, R. G., & Teel, J. E. (1989). Measurement of consumer susceptibility to interpersonal influence. Journal of Consumer Research, 15(4), 473–481. https://doi.org/10.1086/209186
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107(2), 238–246. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.238
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berinsky, A. J., Huber, G. A., & Lenz, G. S. (2012). Evaluating online labor markets for experimental research: Amazon.com's mechanical Turk. Political Analysis, 20(3), 351–368. https://doi.org/10.1093/pan/mpr057
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bollen, K. A. (1989). A new incremental fit index for general structural equation models. Sociological Methods & Research, 17(3), 303–316. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124189017003004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Branscombe, N. R., & Wann, D. L. (1992). Physiological arousal and reactions to outgroup members during competitions implicate an important social identity. Aggressive Behavior, 18(2), 85–93. https://doi.org/10.1002/1098-2337(1992)18:2<85::AID-AB2480180202>3.0.CO;2-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1992). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. Sociological Methods and Research, 21(2), 230–258. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124192021002005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buhrmester, M., Kwang, T., & Gosling, S. D. (2011). Amazon's mechanical Turk: A new source of inexpensive, yet high-quality data? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6(1), 3–5. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691610393980
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cacioppo, J. T., Von Hippel, W., & Ernst, J. M. (1997). Mapping cognitive structures and processes through verbal content: The thought-listing technique. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65(6), 928–940. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.65.6.928
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell, D. T., & Fiske, D. W. (1959). Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait-multimethod matrix. Psychological Bulletin, 56(2), 81–105. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0046016
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chandler, J., Mueller, P., & Paolacci, G. (2014). Nonnaïveté among Amazon Mechanical Turk workers: Consequences and solutions for behavioral researchers. Behavior Research Methods, 46, 112–130.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chandler, J., & Shapiro, D. (2016). Conducting clinical research using crowdsourced convenience samples. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 12(1), 53–81. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-021815-093623
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang, S.-J., van Witteloostuijn, A., & Eden, L. (2010). From the editors: Common method variance in international business research. Journal of International Business Studies, 41(2), 178–184. https://doi.org/10.1057/jibs.2009.88
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Churchill Jr, G. A. (1979). A paradigm for developing better measures of marketing constructs. Journal of Marketing Research, 16(1), 64–73. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224377901600110
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark, L. A., & Watson, D. (2019). Constructing validity: New developments in creating objective measuring instruments. Psychological Assessment, 31(12), 1412–1427. http://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000626
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika, 16(3), 297–334. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02310555
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cunningham, N. R., & Eastin, M. S. (2017). Second screen and sports: A structural investigation into team identification and efficacy. Communication & Sport, 5(3), 288–310. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167479515610152
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeCharms, R. (1972). Personal causation training in the schools 1. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 2(2), 95–113. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1972.tb01266.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deci, E. (1975). Notes on the theory and metatheory of intrinsic motivation. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 15(1), 130–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073(76)90033-7
   Google Scholar
• Deci, E., & Ryan, R. (1985a). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. Plenum Publishing Co.
   Google Scholar
• Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (1999). A meta-analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 125(6), 627.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985b). The general causality orientations scale: Self-determination in personality. Journal of Research in Personality, 19(2), 109–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-6566(85)90023-6
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The” what” and” why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2002). Overview of self-determination theory: An organismic-dialectical perspective. In E. L. Deci, & R. M. Ryan (Eds.), Handbook of self-determination research (pp. 3–33). University of Rochester Press.
   Google Scholar
• Deloitte. (2020). A new ball game: Navigating digital transformation in the sports industry. [https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/global/Documents/Technology-Media-Telecommunications/gx-digital-transformation-sports.pdf]
   Google Scholar
• DeVellis, R. F. (2016). Scale development: Theory and applications (3rd ed.). Sage Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Dolan, P., & Hill, K. (2018). Enhancing safety and security at sports events: A global perspective. European Sport Management Quarterly, 18(4), 433–450.
   Google Scholar
• Eastman, S. T., & Land, A. M. (1997). The best of both worlds: Sports fans find good seats at the bar. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 21(2), 156–178. https://doi.org/10.1177/019372397021002004
   Google Scholar
• Eyal, P., David, R., Andrew, G., Zak, E., & Ekaterina, D. (2021). Data quality of platforms and panels for online behavioral research. Behavior Research Methods, 54(4), 1643–1662. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-021-01694-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fabrigar, L. R., Wegener, D. T., MacCallum, R. C., & Strahan, E. J. (1999). Evaluating the use of exploratory factor analysis in psychological research. Psychological Methods, 4(3), 272–299. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.4.3.272
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fairley, S., & Tyler, B. D. (2012). Bringing baseball to the big screen: Building sense of community outside of the ballpark. Journal of Sport Management, 26(3), 258–270. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.26.3.258
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error: Algebra and statistics. Sage Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Funk, D. C., Beaton, A., & Alexandris, K. (2012). Sport consumer motivation: Autonomy and control orientations that regulate fan behaviours. Sport Management Review, 15(35), 33–367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2011.11.001
   Google Scholar
• Funk, D. C., Filo, K., Beaton, A. A., & Pritchard, M. (2009). Measuring the motives of sport event attendance: Bridging the academic-practitioner divide to understanding behavior. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 18(3), 126.
   Google Scholar
• Gantz, W., & Wenner, L. A. (1995). Fanship and the television sports viewing experience. Sociology of Sport Journal, 12(1), 56–74. https://doi.org/10.1123/ssj.12.1.56
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2019). Multivariate data analysis (8th ed.). Cengage: Learning EMEA.
   Google Scholar
• Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. (2006). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). Pearson Prentice Hall.
   Google Scholar
• Hallmann, K., & Breuer, C. (2018). Fan violence in sport: An interdisciplinary review. European Journal for Sport and Society, 15(1), 49–72.
   Google Scholar
• Hardesty, D. M., & Bearden, W. O. (2004). The use of expert judges in scale development: Implications for improving face validity of measures of unobservable constructs. Journal of Business Research, 57(2), 98–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0148-2963(01)00295-8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harlow, H. F. (1958). The nature of love. American Psychologist, 13(12), 673–685. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0047884
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaiser, H. F. (1974). An index of factorial simplicity. Psychometrika, 39(1), 31–36. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02291575
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaltsonoudi, K., Tsigilis, N., & Karteroliotis, K. (2022). Critical review of the literature and current tendencies of the common method variance in sport management research. Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science, 26(2), 103–115. https://doi.org/10.1080/1091367X.2021.1949322
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaplan, A. M, & Haenlein, M. (2010). Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of Social Media. Business Horizons, 53(1), 59–68.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katz, E., Blumler, J. G., & Gurevitch, M. (1973). Uses and gratifications research. The Public Opinion Quarterly, 37(4), 509–523. https://doi.org/10.1086/268109
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keith, M. G., Tay, L., & Harms, P. D. (2017). Systems perspective of amazon Mechanical Turk for organizational research: Review and recommendations”. Frontiers in Psychology, 8(1), 1–19.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kim, A., Kim, M., Salaga, S., & Zhang, J. J. (2022). Impact of social media on intention to purchase pay-per-view and event attendance: The case of the ultimate fighting championship. International Journal of Sport Communication, 15(1), 10–22. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsc.2021-0068
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, M. J., & Mao, L. L. (2021). Sport consumers motivation for live attendance and mediated sports consumption: A qualitative analysis. Sport in Society, 24(4), 515–533. https://doi.org/10.1080/17430437.2019.1679769
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kock, F., Berbekova, A., & Assaf, A. G. (2021). Understanding and managing the threat of common method bias: Detection, prevention and control. Tourism Management, 86, 104330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2021.104330
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lines. (2022). Changes in sports viewership: How has Covid-19 pandemic altered viewing habits? [https://www.lines.com/nfl/changes-in-sports-viewership-covid-19-1022]
   Google Scholar
• Macaulay, T. (2019). How technology is changing the sports fans’ experience. [https://www.techadvisor.com/news/small-business/how-technology-is-changing-sports-fans-experience-3789100/]
   Google Scholar
• Madrigal, R. (2006). Measuring the multidimensional nature of sporting event performance consumption. Journal of Leisure Research, 38(3), 267–292. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222216.2006.11950079
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mao, L. L. (2020). Measuring constructs in sport management: A contingency framework. Choregia: Sport Management International Journal, 16(1), 51–75.
   Google Scholar
• Melnick, M. J. (1993). Searching for sociability in the stands: A theory of sports spectating. Journal of Sport Management, 7(1), 44–60. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.7.1.44
   Google Scholar
• Netemeyer, R. G., Burton, S., & Lichtenstein, D. R. (1995). Trait aspects of vanity: Measurement and relevance to consumer behavior. Journal of Consumer Research, 21(4), 612–626. https://doi.org/10.1086/209422
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nielsen. (2022). Sports fandom is increasing, powered by new digital platforms, global report finds. [https://www.nielsen.com/news-center/2022/sports-fandom-is-increasing-powered-by-new-digital-platforms-global-report-finds/]
   Google Scholar
• Nix, G. A., Ryan, R. M., Manly, J. B., & Deci, E. L. (1999). Revitalization through self-regulation: The effects of autonomous and controlled motivation on happiness and vitality. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35(3), 266–284. https://doi.org/10.1006/jesp.1999.1382
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychological theory. MacGraw-Hill.
   Google Scholar
• Paolacci, G., Chandler, J., & Ipeirotis, P. G. (2010). Running experiments on Amazon mechanical Turk. Judgment and Decision Making, 5(5), 411–419. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1930297500002205
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peer, E., Vosgerau, J., & Acquisti, A. (2014). Reputation as a sufficient condition for data quality on Amazon Mechanical Turk. Behavior Research Methods, 46, 1023–1031.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Podsakoff, P. M., Mackenzie, S. B., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2012). Sources of method bias in social science research and recommendations on how to control it. Annual Review of Psychology, 63(1), 539–569.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Preece, J. (2001). Sociability and usability in online communities: Determining and measuring success. Behaviour and Information Technology, 20(5), 347–356. https://doi.org/10.1080/01449290110084683
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prolific. (2023). Prolific's attention and comprehension check policy. https://researcher-help.prolific.com/hc/en-gb/articles/360009223553-Prolific-s-Attention-and-Comprehension-Check-Policy
   Google Scholar
• Qian, T. Y. (2022). Watching sports on twitch? A study of factors influencing continuance intentions to watch Thursday night football co-streaming. Sport Management Review, 25(1), 59–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/14413523.2021.1930700
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qian, T. Y., Wang, J. J., Zhang, J. J., & Lu, L. Z. (2020). It is in the game: Dimensions of esports online spectator motivation and development of a scale. European Sport Management Quarterly, 20(4), 458–479. https://doi.org/10.1080/16184742.2019.1630464
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raney, A. A. (2006). Why we watch and enjoy mediated sports. Handbook of Sports and Media.
   Google Scholar
• Ridinger, L., & James, J. (2002). Female and male sport fans: A comparison of sport consumption motives. Journal of Sport Behavior, 25(3), 260–278.
   Google Scholar
• Ryan, R. M., & Connell, J. P. (1989). Perceived locus of causality and internalization: Examining reasons for acting in two domains. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(5), 749–761. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.57.5.749
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2008). A self-determination theory approach to psychotherapy: The motivational basis for effective change. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 49(3), 186. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012753
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2017). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness. Guilford Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L., & Grolnick, W. S. (1995). Autonomy, relatedness, and the self: Their relation to development and psychopathology. In D. Cicchetti, & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Wiley series on personality processes. Developmental psychopathology, Vol. 1. Theory and methods (pp. 618–655). John Wiley & Sons.
   Google Scholar
• Sato, M., Jordan, J. S., & Funk, D. C. (2016). A distance-running event and life satisfaction: The mediating roles of involvement. Sport Management Review, 19(5), 536–549.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sloan, L. R. (1989). The motives of sports fans. In J. H. Goldstein (Ed.), Sports, games, and play: Social & psychological viewpoints (pp. 175–240). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
   Google Scholar
• Snyder, C. R., Lassegard, M., & Ford, C. E. (1986). Distancing after group success and failure: Basking in reflected glory and cutting off reflected failure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(2), 382. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.51.2.382
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• sportsvideogroup. (2022). Survey: U.S. Fans watch more live sports; growing interest in ‘snackable’ content, fan-focused technologies. [https://www.sportsvideo.org/2022/10/02/altman-solon-survey-u-s-fans-watching-more-live-sports-but-growing-interest-in-snackable-content-fan-focused-technologies-like-nfts-virtual-reality-preview-evolution-of-sports-v/]
   Google Scholar
• Statista. (2021). Number of digital live sports viewers in the united states from 2021 to 2025. [https://www.statista.com/statistics/1127341/live-sport-viewership/#:~:text=In%202021%2C%20approximately%2057.5%20million,over%2090%20million%20by%202025]
   Google Scholar
• Trail, G. T., & James, J. (2001). The motivation scale for sport consumption: Assessment of the scale's psychometric properties. Journal of Sport Behaviour, 24(1), 108–127.
   Google Scholar
• Trail, G. T., Robinson, M. J., Dick, R. J., & Gillentine, A. J. (2003). Motives and points of attachment: Fans versus spectators in intercollegiate athletics. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 12(4), 217–227.
   Google Scholar
• Van Cauwenberge, A., Schaap, G., & Van Roy, R. (2014). “TV no longer commands our full attention”: effects of second-screen viewing and task relevance on cognitive load and learning from news. Computers in Human Behavior, 38, 100–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.05.021
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wakefield, K. L. (1995). The pervasive effects of social influence on sporting event attendance. Journal of Sport & Social Issues, 19(4), 335–351. https://doi.org/10.1177/019372395019004002
   Google Scholar
• Wakefield, K. L., & Sloan, H. J. (1995). The effects of team loyalty and selected stadium factors on spectator attendance. Journal of Sport Management, 9(2), 153–172. http://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.9.2.153
   Google Scholar
• Wann, D. (1995). Preliminary validation of the sport fan motivation scale. Journal of Sport & Social Issues, 19(4), 377–396. https://doi.org/10.1177/019372395019004004
   Google Scholar
• Wann, D. (2002). Preliminary validation of a measure for assessing identification as a sport fan: The sport fandom questionnaire. International Journal of Sport Management, 3(2), 103–115.
   Google Scholar
• Weed, M. (2007). The pub as a virtual football fandom venue: An alternative to ‘being there’? Soccer and Society, 8(2-3), 399–414. https://doi.org/10.1080/14660970701224665
   Google Scholar
• Weed, M. (2008). Exploring the sport spectator experience: Virtual football spectatorship in the pub. Soccer and Society, 9(2), 189–197. https://doi.org/10.1080/14660970701811057
   Google Scholar
• White, R. W. (1959). Motivation reconsidered: The concept of competence. Psychological Review, 66(5), 297–333. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0040934
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson, B. (2016). Sport security management: Trends and challenges in analyzing and preventing sport venue threats. Journal of Sport Management, 30(5), 485–497.
   Google Scholar
• Worthington, R. L., & Whittaker, T. A. (2006). Scale development research: A content analysis and recommendations for best practices. The Counseling Psychologist, 34(6), 806–838. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000006288127
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yong, A. G., & Pearce, S. (2013). A beginner’s guide to factor analysis: Focusing on exploratory factor analysis. Tutorials in Quantitative Methods for Psychology, 9(2), 79–94. https://doi.org/10.20982/tqmp.09.2.p079
   Google Scholar
• Zaichkowsky, J. L. (1985). Measuring the involvement construct. Journal of Consumer Research, 12(3), 341–352. https://doi.org/10.1086/208520
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, J. J., Pease, D. G., & Hui, S. C. (1996). Value dimensions of professional sport as viewed by spectators. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 20(1), 78–94. https://doi.org/10.1177/019372396020001007
   Google Scholar
• Zillmann, D., Bryant, J., & Sapolsky, B. S. (1989). Enjoyment from sports spectatorship. In J. H. Goldstein (Ed.), Sports, games, and play: Social and psychological viewpoints (2nd ed., pp. 248–285). Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Zillmann, D., & Cantor, J. R. (1972). Directionality of transitory dominance as a communication variable affecting humor appreciation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24(2), 191–198. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0033384
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar