Distress and Avoidance in Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Exploring the Relationships with Intolerance of Uncertainty and Worry

References

• American Psychiatric Association . 2000 . Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders , 4th ed. , Washington, DC : Author .
   Google Scholar
• Antony , M. M. , Bieling , P. J. , Cox , B. J. , Enns , M. W. and Swinson , R. P. 1998 . Psychometric properties of the 42-item and 21-item versions of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales in clinical groups and a community sample . Psychological Assessment , 10 : 176 – 181 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berg , C. Z. , Shapiro , N. , Chambless , D. L. and Ahrens , A. H. 1998 . Are emotions frightening? II: An analogue study of fear of emotion, interpersonal conflict, and panic onset . Behaviour Research and Therapy , 36 : 3 – 15 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borkovec , T. D. 1994 . “ The nature, functions, and origins of worry ” . In Worrying: Perspectives on theory, assessment and treatment , Edited by: Davey , G. C. L. and Tallis , F. 5 – 34 . New York : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Borkovec , T. D. , Alcaine , O. M. and Behar , E. 2004 . “ Avoidance theory of worry and generalized anxiety disorder ” . In Generalized anxiety disorder: Advances in research and practice , Edited by: Heimberg , R. G. , Turk , C. L. and Mennin , D. S. 77 – 108 . New York : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Borkovec , T. D. , Hazlett-Stevens , H. and Diaz , M. L. 1999 . The role of positive beliefs about worry in generalized anxiety disorder and its treatment . Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy , 6 : 126 – 138 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borkovec , T. D. and Hu , S. 1990 . The effect of worry on cardiovascular response to phobic imagery . Behaviour Research and Therapy , 28 : 69 – 73 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borkovec , T. D. and Roemer , L. 1995 . Perceived functions of worry among generalized anxiety disorder subjects: Distraction from more emotionally distressing topics? . Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry , 26 : 25 – 30 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borkovec , T. D. and Ruscio , A. Y. 2001 . Psychotherapy for generalized anxiety disorder . Journal of Clinical Psychiatry , 62 : 37 – 42 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown , T. A. , Di Nardo , P. A. and Barlow , D. H. 1994 . Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for DSM-IV: Adult and lifetime version, clinician manual , San Antonio, TX : Psychological Corporation .
   Google Scholar
• Brown , T. A. , Di Nardo , P. A. , Lehman , C. L. and Campbell , L. A. 2001 . Reliability of DSM-IV anxiety and mood disorders: Implications for the classification of emotional disorders . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 110 : 49 – 58 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buhr , K. and Dugas , M. J. 2002 . The Intolerance of Uncertainty scale: Psychometric properties of the English version . Behaviour Research and Therapy , 40 : 931 – 945 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Di Nardo , P. A. , Brown , T. A. and Barlow , D. H. 1994 . Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for DSM-IV: Lifetime version , San Antonio, TX : Psychological Corporation .
   Google Scholar
• Dugas , M. J. , Buhr , K. and Ladouceur , R. 2004 . “ The role of intolerance of uncertainty in etiology and maintenance ” . In Generalized anxiety disorder: Advances in research and practice , Edited by: Heimberg , R. G. , Turk , C. L. and Mennin , D. S. 143 – 163 . New York : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Dugas , M. J. , Freeston , M. H. and Ladouceur , R. 1997 . Intolerance of uncertainty and problem orientation in worry . Cognitive Therapy and Research , 21 : 593 – 606 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dugas , M. J. and Koerner , N. 2005 . Cognitive-behavioral treatments for generalized anxiety disorder: Current status and future directions . Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy: An International Quarterly , 19 : 61 – 81 .
   Google Scholar
• Dugas , M. J. , Savard , P. , Gaudet , A. , Turcotte , J. , Laugesen , N. Robichaud , M. 2007 . Can the components of a cognitive model predict the severity of generalized anxiety disorder? . Behavior Therapy , 38 : 169 – 178 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freeston , M. H. , Rhéaume , J. , Letarte , H. , Dugas , M. J. and Ladouceur , R. 1994 . Why do people worry? . Personality and Individual Differences , 17 : 791 – 802 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gould , R. A. , Safren , S. A. , Washington , D. O. and Otto , M. W. 2004 . “ A meta-analytic review of cognitive-behavioral treatments ” . In Generalized anxiety disorder: Advances in research and practice , Edited by: Heimberg , R. G. , Turk , C. L. and Mennin , D. S. 248 – 264 . New York : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Groth-Marnat , G. 2003 . Handbook of psychological assessment , 4th ed. , Hoboken, NJ : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Hayes , S. C. , Luoma , J. B. , Bond , F. W. , Masuda , A. and Lillis , J. 2006 . Acceptance and commitment therapy: Model, process and outcomes . Behaviour Research and Therapy , 44 : 1 – 25 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayes , S. C. , Strosahl , K. , Wilson , K. G. , Bissett , R. T. , Pistorello , J. Toarmino , D. 2004 . Measuring experiential avoidance: A preliminary test of a working model . The Psychological Record , 54 : 553 – 578 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayes , S. C. , Wilson , K. G. , Gifford , E. V. , Follette , V. M. and Strosahl , K. 1996 . Experiential avoidance and behavioral disorders: A functional dimensional approach to diagnosis and treatment . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 64 : 1152 – 1168 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henry , J. D. and Crawford , J. R. 2005 . The short-form version of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21): Construct validity and normative data in a large non-clinical sample . British Journal of Clinical Psychology , 44 : 227 – 239 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kessler , R. C. , Walters , E. E. and Wittchen , H. 2004 . “ Epidemiology ” . In Generalized anxiety disorder: Advances in research and practice , Edited by: Heimberg , R. G. , Turk , C. L. and Mennin , D. S. 29 – 50 . New York : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Ladouceur , R. , Dugas , M. J. , Freeston , M. H. , Leger , E. , Gagnon , F. and Thibodeau , N. 2000 . Efficacy of a cognitive-behavioral treatment for generalized anxiety disorder: Evaluation in a controlled clinical trial . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 68 : 957 – 964 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ladouceur , R. , Gosselin , P. and Dugas , M. J. 2000 . Experimental manipulation of intolerance of uncertainty: A study of a theoretical model of worry . Behaviour Research and Therapy , 38 : 933 – 941 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lovibond , S. H. and Lovibond , P. F. 1995 . Manual for the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales , Sydney : Psychology Foundation of Australia .
   Google Scholar
• Marciniak , M. D. , Lage , M. J. , Dunayevich , E. , Russell , J. M. , Bowman , L. , Landbloom , R. P. and Levine , L. R. 2005 . The cost of treating anxiety: The medical and demographic correlates that impact total medical costs . Depression and Anxiety , 21 : 178 – 184 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mennin , D. S. 2004 . Emotion regulation therapy for generalized anxiety disorder . Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy , 11 : 17 – 29 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mennin , D. S. , Heimberg , R. G. , Turk , C. L. and Fresco , D. M. 2005 . Preliminary evidence for an emotion dysregulation model of generalized anxiety disorder . Behaviour Research and Therapy , 43 : 1281 – 1310 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer , T. J. , Miller , M. L. , Metzger , R. L. and Borkovec , T. D. 1990 . Development and validation of the Penn State Worry Questionnaire . Behaviour Research and Therapy , 28 : 487 – 495 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moscovitch , D. A. and Hofmann , S. G. 2006 . When ambiguity hurts: Social standards moderate self-appraisals in generalized social phobia . Behaviour Research and Therapy , 45 : 1039 – 1052 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roemer , L. and Orsillo , S. M. 2002 . Expanding our conceptualization of and treatment for generalized anxiety disorder: Integrating mindfulness/acceptance-based approaches with existing cognitive-behavioral models . Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice , 9 : 54 – 68 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roemer , L. and Orsillo , S. M. 2007 . An open trial of an acceptance-based behavior therapy for generalized anxiety disorder . Behavior Therapy , 38 : 72 – 85 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roemer , L. , Orsillo , S. M. and Barlow , D. H. 2002 . “ Generalized anxiety disorder ” . In Anxiety and its disorders , 2nd ed. , Edited by: Barlow , D. H. 477 – 515 . New York : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Roemer , L. , Orsillo , S. M. and Salters-Pedneault , K. 2008 . Efficacy of an acceptance-based behavior therapy for generalized anxiety disorder: Evaluation in a randomized controlled trial . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 76 : 1083 – 1089 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roemer , L. , Salters , K. , Raffa , S. and Orsillo , S. M. 2005 . Fear and avoidance of internal experiences in GAD: Preliminary tests of a conceptual model . Cognitive Therapy and Research , 29 : 71 – 88 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruscio , A. M. and Borkovec , T. D. 2004 . Experience and appraisal of worry among high worriers with and without generalized anxiety disorder . Behavior Research and Therapy , 42 : 1469 – 1482 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tabachnick , B. G. and Fidell , L. S. 2001 . Using multivariate statistics , 4th ed. , Boston : Allyn & Bacon .
   Google Scholar
• Wells , A. 1995 . Meta-cognition and worry: A cognitive model of generalized anxiety disorder . Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy , 23 : 301 – 320 .
   Google Scholar
• Williams , K. E. , Chambless , D. L. and Ahrens , A. 1997 . Are emotions frightening? An extension of the fear of fear construct . Behaviour Research and Therapy , 35 : 239 – 248 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson , K. G. and Murrell , A. R. 2004 . “ Values work in acceptance and commitment therapy: Setting a course for behavioral treatment ” . In Mindfulness and acceptance: Expanding the cognitive-behavioral tradition , Edited by: Hayes , S. C. , Follette , V. M. and Linehan , M. 120 – 151 . New York : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Zvolensky , M. J. , Feldner , M. T. , Leen-Feldner , E. W. and Yartz , A. R. 2005 . “ Exploring basic processes underlying acceptance and mindfulness ” . In Acceptance and mindfulness-based approaches to anxiety: Conceptualization and treatment , Edited by: Orsillo , S. M. and Roemer , L. 325 – 357 . New York : Springer .
   Google Scholar