A longitudinal assessment of the stability of the three-dimensional moral self-concept during early childhood

References

• Aquino, K., & Reed, A. (2002). The self-importance of moral identity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(6), 1423. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.83.6.1423
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arbuckle, J. L. (1996). Full information estimation in the presence of incomplete data. In G. A. Marcoulides & R. E. Schumacker (Eds.), Advanced structural equation modeling: issues and techniques (pp. 243–277). Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Arens, A. K., Marsh, H. W., Craven, R. G., Yeung, A. S., Randhawa, E., & Hasselhorn, M. (2016). Math self-concept in preschool children: Structure, achievement relations, and generalizability across gender. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 36, 391–403. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2015.12.024
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bell, A. (2007). Designing and testing questionnaires for children. Journal of Research in Nursing, 12(5), 461–469. https://doi.org/10.1177/1744987107079616
   Google Scholar
• Bem, D. J. (1972). Self-perception theory. In D. J. Bem (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 6, pp. 1–62). Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bentler, P. M. (2009). Alpha, dimension-free, and model-based internal consistency reliability. Psychometrika, 74(1), 137–143. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11336-008-9100-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blasi, A. (1983). Moral cognition and moral action: A theoretical perspective. Developmental Review, 3(2), 178–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/0273-2297(83)90029-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen, P.-Y., Wu, W., Garnier-Villarreal, M., Kite, B. A., & Jia, F. (2020). Testing measurement invariance with ordinal missing data: A comparison of estimators and Missing data techniques. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 55(1), 87–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273171.2019.1608799
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christner, N., Pletti, C., & Paulus, M. (2020). Emotion understanding and the moral self-concept as motivators of prosocial behavior in middle childhood. Cognitive Development, 55, 100893. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogdev.2020.100893
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohrssen, C., Niklas, F., Logan, D., & Tayler, C. (2016). The self-reported academic self-concept of four-year-old children: global and fixed, or nuanced and changing in the year before school? Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 41(3), 4–10. https://doi.org/10.1177/183693911604100302
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunfield, K., & Kuhlmeier, V. A. (2013). Classifying prosocial behavior: Children’s responses to instrumental need, emotional distress, and material desire. Child Development, 84(5), 1766–1776. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12075
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunfield, K. (2014). A construct divided: Prosocial behavior as helping, sharing, and comforting subtypes. Frontiers in Psychology, 5(958), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00958
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Eccles, J. S., Jacobs, J. E., & Harold, R. D. (1990). Gender role stereotypes, expectancy effects, and parents’ socialization of gender differences. Journal of Social Issues, 46(2), 183–201. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1990.tb01929.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eder, R. A. (1990). Uncovering young children’s psychological selves: Individual and developmental differences. Child Development, 61(3), 849–863. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1990.tb02827.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fink, E., Mareva, S., & Gibson, J. L. (2020). Dispositional playfulness in young children: A cross‐sectional and longitudinal examination of the psychometric properties of a new child self‐reported playfulness scale and associations with social behaviour. Infant and Child Development, 29(4), e2181. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.2181
   Google Scholar
• Finney, S. J., DiStefano, C. J., & S. E. M, A. S. C. (2006). Non-normal and categorical data in structural equation modeling. In G. R. Hancock & R. O. Mueller (Eds.), Structural equation modeling: a second course (Vol. 10, pp. 269–314). Information Age Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Hammond, S. I., Al-Jbouri, E., Edwards, V., & Feltham, L. E. (2017). Infant helping in the first year of life: Parents’ recollection of infants’ earliest prosocial behaviors. Infant Behavior & Development, 47, 54–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2017.02.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hardy, S., & Carlo, G. (2011). Moral identity: What is it, how does it develop, and is it linked to moral action? Child Development Perspectives, 5(3), 212–218. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2011.00189.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harter, S. (1999). The Construction of the Self: A Developmental Perspective. Guilford Publications, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Harter, S. (2006). The self. In N. Eisenberg, W. Damon, & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology (Vol. 6, pp. 505–570). Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Hastings, P. D., McShane, K. E., Parker, R., & Ladha, F. (2007). Ready to make nice: Parental socialization of young sons’ and daughters’ prosocial behaviors with peers. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 168(2), 177–200. https://doi.org/10.3200/GNTP.168.2.177-200
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hertz, S. G., & Krettenauer, T. (2016). Does moral identity effectively predict moral behavior?: A meta-analysis. Review of General Psychology, 20(2), 129–140. https://doi.org/10.1037/gpr0000062
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu, L., & Bentler, P. (1999). Cut-off criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives, structural equation modelling. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
   Google Scholar
• Jorgensen, T. D. (2017). Applying permutation tests and multivariate modification indices to configurally invariant models that need respecification. Frontiers in Psychology, 8(1455). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01455
   Google Scholar
• Jorgensen, T. D., Pornprasertmanit, S., Schoemann, A. M., & Rosseel, Y. (2021). semTools: Useful tools for structural equation modeling. R package version 0.5-5. Retrieved from https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=semTools
   Google Scholar
• Klomsten, A. T., Skaalvik, E. M., & Espnes, G. A. (2004). Physical self-concept and sports: Do gender differences still exist? Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 50(1–2), 119–127. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:SERS.0000011077.10040.9a
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kochanska, G. (2002). Committed compliance, moral self, and internalization: A mediational model. Developmental Psychology, 38(3), 339–351. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.38.3.339
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kochanska, G., Koenig, J. L., Barry, R. A., Kim, S., & Yoon, J. E. (2010). Children’s conscience during toddler and preschool years, moral self, and a competent, adaptive developmental trajectory. Developmental Psychology, 46(5), 1320–1332. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020381
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krettenauer, T., Campbell, S., & Hertz, S. (2013). Moral emotions and the development of the moral self in childhood. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 10(2), 159–173. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2012.762750
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krettenauer, T. (2013). Revisiting the moral self construct: Developmental perspectives on moral selfhood. In B. W. Sokol, F. M. Grouzet, & U. Müller (Eds.), Self-regulation and autonomy: Social and developmental dimensions of human conduct (pp. 115–140). Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Little, R. J. (1988). A test of missing completely at random for multivariate data with missing values. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 83(404), 1198–1202. https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1988.10478722
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marsh, H. W., & Shavelson, R. J. (1985). Self-concept: Its multifaceted, hierarchical structure. Educational Psychologist, 20(3), 107–123. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep2003_1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marsh, H. W., & Ayotte, V. (2003). Do multiple dimensions of self-concept become more differentiated with age? The differential distinctiveness hypothesis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 687–706. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.687
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monin, B., & Jordan, A. H. (2009). The dynamic moral self: A social psychological perspective. In D. Narvaez & D. K. Lapsley (Eds.), Personality, identity, and character: explorations in moral psychology (pp. 341–354). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511627125.016
   Google Scholar
• Paruzel-Czachura, M., & Blukacz, M. (2021). How relevant for you is to be a moral person? Polish validation of the self-importance of moral identity scale. PLoS ONE, 16(8), e0255386. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0255386
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paulus, M. (2014). The emergence of prosocial behavior: Why do infants and toddlers help, comfort, and share? Child Development Perspectives, 8(2), 77–81. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12066
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paulus, M. (2018). The multidimensional nature of early prosocial behavior: A motivational perspective. Current Opinion in Psychology, 20, 111–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.09.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pletti, C., Decety, J., & Paulus, M. (2022). Neural processing of moral content reflects moral identity in 10-year-old children. Developmental Science, 25, e13232. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.13232
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Putnick, D. L., Hahn, C. S., Hendricks, C., & Bornstein, M. H. (2020). Developmental stability of scholastic, social, athletic, and physical appearance self‐concepts from preschool to early adulthood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 61(1), 95–103. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13107
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reed, A., I. I., Kay, A., Finnel, S., Aquino, K., & Levy, E. (2016). I don’t want the money, I just want your time: How moral identity overcomes the aversion to giving time to prosocial causes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 110(3), 435–457. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000058
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosseel, Y. (2012). Lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling and more. Version 0.5–12 (BETA). Journal of Statistical Software, 48(2), 1–36. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v048.i02
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt, I., Brunner, M., Keller, L., Scherrer, V., Wollschläger, R., Baudson, T. G., & Preckel, F. (2017). Profile formation of academic self-concept in elementary school students in grades 1 to 4. PLoS ONE, 12(5), e0177854. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0177854
   Google Scholar
• Sengsavang, S., & Krettenauer, T. (2015). Children’s moral self-concept: The role of aggression and parent–child relationships. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 61(2), 213–235. https://doi.org/10.13110/merrpalmquar1982.61.2.0213
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sticker, R. M., Christner, N., Pletti, C., & Paulus, M. (2021). The moral self-concept in preschool children: Its dimensions and relation to prosocial behaviors. Cognitive Development, 58, 101033. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogdev.2021.101033
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Svetlova, M., Nichols, S. R., & Brownell, C. A. (2010). Toddlers prosocial behavior: From instrumental to empathic to altruistic helping. Child Development, 81(6), 1814–1827. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01512.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verschueren, K., Doumen, S., & Buyse, E. (2012). Relationships with mother, teacher, and peers: Unique and joint effects on young children’s self-concept. Attachment & Human Development, 14(3), 233–248. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2012.672263
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Widaman, K. F., Ferrer, E., & Conger, R. D. (2010). Factorial invariance within longitudinal structural equation models: Measuring the same construct across time. Child Development Perspectives, 4(1), 10–18. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2009.00110.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2002). The development of competence beliefs, expectancies for success, and achievement values from childhood through adolescence. In A. Wigfield & J. S. Eccles (Eds.), Development of achievement motivation (pp. 91–120). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012750053-9/50006-1
   Google Scholar
• Xia, Y., & Yang, Y. (2019). RMSEA, CFI, and TLI in structural equation modeling with ordered categorical data: The story they tell depends on the estimation methods. Behavior Research Methods, 51(1), 409–428. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-018-1055-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar