471
Views
5
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Drug-drug interactions when treating HIV-related metabolic disorders

, , , &
Pages 787-802 | Received 17 Jun 2019, Accepted 10 Sep 2019, Published online: 24 Sep 2019

References

  • Palella F, Delaney K, Moorman A, et al. Declining morbidity and mortality among patients with advanced HIV infection. HIV outpatient study investigators. N Engl J Med. 1998;338:853–860.
  • Guaraldi G, Orlando G, Zona S, et al. Premature age-related comorbidities among HIV-infected persons compared with the general population. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;53:1120–1126.
  • Schouten J, Wit FW, Stolte IG, et al. Cross-sectional comparison of the prevalence of age-associated comorbidities and their risk factors between HIV-infected and uninfected individuals: the AGEhIV Cohort Study. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;59:1787–1797.
  • Marzolini C, Elzi L, Gibbons S, et al. Prevalence of comedications and effect of potential drug-drug interactions in the swiss HIV cohort study. Antivir Ther. 2010;15:413–423.
  • Tseng A, Szadkowski L, Walmsley S, et al. Association of age with polypharmacy and risk of drug interactions with antiretroviral medications in HIV-positive patients. Ann Pharmacother. 2013;47:1429–1439.
  • Marzolini C, Back D, Weber R, et al. Ageing with HIV: medication use and risk for potential drug-drug interactions. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2011;66:2107–2111.
  • Rathbun RC, Liedtke MD. Antiretroviral drug interactions: overview of interactions involving new and investigational agents and the role of therapeutic drug monitoring for management. Pharmaceutics. 2011;3:745–781.
  • Fellay J, Marzolini C, Decosterd L, et al. Variations of CYP3A activity induced by antiretroviral treatment in HIV-1 infected patients. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2005;60:865–873.
  • Jimenez-Nacher I, Alvarez E, Morello J, et al. Approaches for understanding and predicting drug interactions inhuman immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol. 2011;7:457–477.
  • Szklarz GD, Halpert JR. Molecular basis of P450 inhibition and activation: implications for drug development and drug therapy. Drug Metab Dispos. 1998;26:1179–1184.
  • Isentress (raltegravir). Summary of product characteristics. Netherlands: Merck Sharp & Dohme B.V.; 2014 May 14. Revised 2019 Mar 31.
  • Tivicay (Dolutegravir). Summary of product characteristics. Netherlands: ViiV Healthcare BV; 2018 August 27
  • Bictarvy (Bictegravir, emtricitabine, tenofovir alafenamide fumarate). Summary of product characteristics. Ireland: Gilead Sciences Ireland UC; 2018 June 21.
  • Genvoya (Elvitegravir, cobicistat, emtricitabine, tenofovir alafenamide fumarate). Summary of product characteristics. Ireland: Gilead Sciences International Ltd; 2015 November 19.
  • Minuesa G, Huber-Ruano I, Pastor-Anglada M, et al. Drug uptake transporters in antiretroviral therapy. Pharmacol Ther. 2011;132:268–279.
  • Shugarts S, Benet LZ. The role of transporters in the pharmacokinetics of orally administered drugs. Pharm Res. 2009;26:2039–2054.
  • Kim RB, Wandel C, Leake B, et al. Interrelationship between substrates and inhibitors of human CYP3A and Pglycoprotein. Pharm Res. 1999;16:408–414.
  • Von Moltke LL, Greenblatt DJ, Grassi JM, et al. Protease inhibitors as inhibitors of human cytochromes P450: high risk associated with ritonavir. J Clin Pharmacol. 1998;38:106–111.
  • Nathan B, Bayley J, Waters L, et al. Cobicistat: a novel pharmacoenhancer for co-formulation with HIV protease and integrase inhibitors. Infect Dis Ther. 2013;2:111–122.
  • Tseng A, Hughes CA, Wu J, et al. Cobicistat versus ritonavir: similar pharmacokinetic enhancers but some important differences. Ann Pharmacother. 2017;51:1008–1022.
  • Usach I, Melis V, Peris JE. Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors: a review on pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, safety and tolerability. J Int AIDS Soc. 2013;16:18567.
  • Fernandez C, van Halsema CL. Evaluating cabotegravir/rilpivirine long-acting, injectable in the treatment of HIV infection: emerging data and therapeutic potential. HIV/AIDS Res Palliative Care. 2019;11:179–192.
  • Wilby KJ, Eissa NA. Clinical pharmacokinetics and drug interactions of doravirine. Eur J Drug Metab Pharmacokinet. 2018;43:637–644.
  • Reese MJ, Bowers GD, Humphreys JE, et al. Drug interaction profile of the HIV integrase inhibitor cabotegravir: assessment from in vitro studies and a clinical investigation with midazolam. Xenobiotica. 2016;46(5):445–456.
  • Abel S, Russell D, Taylor-Worth RJ, et al. Effects of CYP3A4 inhibitors on the pharmacokinetics of maraviroc in healthy volunteers. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2008;65(Suppl 1):27–37.
  • Eaton EF, Tamhane A, Davy-Mendez T, et al. Trends in antiretroviral therapy prescription, durability and modification: new drugs, more changes, but less failure. AIDS. 2018;32:347–355.
  • HIVdruginteractions.org [Internet]. University of Liverpool [cited 2019 Feb–Apr]. Available from: http://www.hiv-druginteractions.org
  • Interaccioneshiv.com [Internet]. Hospital clínic – IDIBAPS. Barcelona. [cited 2019 Feb–Apr]. Available from: http://www.interaccioneshiv.com
  • Hivmedicationguide.com [Internet]. Centre hospitalier de l’Université de Montréal (CHUM). Quebec, Canada [cited 2019 July–Aug]. Available from www.hivmedicationguide.com
  • Friis-Møller N, Weber R, Reiss P, et al. Cardiovascular disease risk factors in HIV patients—association with antiretroviral therapy. Results from the DAD study. AIDS. 2003;17:1179–1193.
  • Grunfeld C, Pang M, Doerrler W, et al. Lipids, lipoproteins, triglyceride clearance, and cytokines in human immunodeficiency virus infection and the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1992;74:1045–1052.
  • Anastos K, Lu D, Shi Q, et al. Association of serum lipid levels with HIV serostatus, specific antiretroviral agents, and treatment regimens. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2007;45:34–42.
  • Steinberg D. Thestatins inpreventivecardiology. N Engl J Med. 2008;359:1426–1427.
  • Mira E, Manes S. Immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory activities of statins. Endocr Metab Immune Disord Drug Targets. 2009;9:237–247.
  • Kuller LH, Tracy R, Belloso W, et al. Inflammatory and coagulation biomarkers and mortality in patients with HIV infection. PLoS Med. 2008;5:e203.
  • McComsey GA, Kitch D, Sax PE, et al. Associations of inflammatory markers with AIDS and non-AIDS clinical events after initiation of antiretroviral therapy: AIDS clinical trials group A5224s, a substudy of ACTG A5202. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2014;65:167–174.
  • Chauvin B, Drouot S, Barrail-Tran A, et al. Drug-drug interactions between HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors (statins) and antiviral protease inhibitors. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2013;52:815–831.
  • Wiggins BS, Lamprecht DG Jr, Page RL II, et al. Recommendations for managing drug-drug interactions with statins and HIV medications. Am J Cardiovasc Drugs. 2017;17:375–389.
  • Rosenson RS, Colantonio LD, Burkholder GA, et al. Trends in utilization of statin therapy and contraindicated statin use in HIV-infected adults treated with antiretroviral therapy from 2007 through 2015. JAmHeartAssoc. 2018;7:e010345.
  • Neuvonen PJ, Niemi M, Backman JT. Drug interactions with lipid-lowering drugs: mechanisms and clinical relevance. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2006;80:565–581.
  • Panel on antiretroviral guidelines for adults and adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIV-1-infected adults and adolescents. Department of Health and Human Services. [cited 2019 Apr 16]. Available from: http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/contentfiles/lvguidelines/AdultandAdolescentGL.pdf
  • Hsyu PH, Schultz-Smith MD, Lillibridge JH, et al. Pharmacokinetic interactions between nelfinavir and 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitors atorvastatin and simvastatin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2001;45:3445–3450.
  • Fichtenbaum CJ, Gerber JG, Rosenkranz SL, et al. Pharmacokinetic interactions between protease inhibitors and statins in HIV seronegative volunteers: ACTG Study A5047. AIDS. 2002;16:569–577.
  • Aboulafia DM, Johnston R. Simvastatin-induced rhabdomyolysis in an HIV-infected patient with coronary artery disease. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2000;14:13–18.
  • Hare CB, Vu MP, Grunfeld C, et al. Simvastatin-nelfinavir interaction implicated in rhabdomyolysis and death. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;35:e111–2.
  • Cheng CH, Miller C, Lowe C, et al. Rhabdomyolysis due to probable interaction between simvastatin and ritonavir. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2002;59:728–730.
  • Gerber JG, Rosenkranz SL, Fichtenbaum CJ, et al. Effect of efavirenz on the pharmacokinetics of simvastatin, atorvastatin, and pravastatin: results of AIDS Clinical Trials Group 5108 Study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2005;39:307–312.
  • Carr RA, Andre RJ, Bertz RJ, et al. Concomitant administration of ABT 378/ritonavir results in clinically important pharmacokinetic interaction with atorvastatin but not pravastatin. 40th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy; 2000 Sept 17–20; Toronto, Canada. Abstract 1644.
  • Wire MB, Baker KL, Moore KHP, et al. The pharmacokinetic (PK) interaction of GW433908 (908) with atorvastatin (ATO) and 908/ritonavir (RTV) with ATO (APV10013). 43rd Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy; 2003 Sept 14–17; Chicago, Illinois. Abstract #A-1622.
  • Hoetelmans R, Lasure A, Koester A, et al. The effect of TMC114, a potent next-generation HIV protease inhibitor, with low-dose ritonavir on atorvastatin pharmacokinetics. 44th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy; 2004 Oct. 30– Nov. 2; Washington, USA. Poster H-865.
  • Calza L, Manfredi R, Colangeli V, et al. Rosuvastatin, pravastatin, and atorvastatin for the treatment of hypercholesterolaemia in HIV-infected patients receiving protease inhibitors. Curr HIV Res. 2008;6:572–578.
  • Mah Ming JB, Gill MJ. Drug-induced rhabdomyolysis after concomitant use of clarithromycin, atorvastatin, and lopinavir/ritonavir in a patient with HIV. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2003;17:207–210.
  • Scholler-Gyure M, Kakuda TN, De Smedt G, et al. Pharmacokinetic interaction between the non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor TMC125 and atorvastatin in HIV-negative volunteers. 4th IAS Conference on HIV Pathogenesis, Treatment & Prevention; 2007 July; Sydney. abstract WEPEA106.
  • Van Heeswijk RPG, Hoetelmans RMW, Aharchi F, et al. The pharmacokinetic interaction between atorvastatin and TMC278, a next generation non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor, in HIV-negative volunteers. 11th European AIDS Conference; 2007 October; Madrid. abstract P4.3/04.
  • Martin PD, Warwick MJ, Dane AL, et al. Metabolism, excretion, and pharmacokinetics of rosuvastatin in healthy adult male volunteers. Clin Ther. 2003;25:2822–2835.
  • McTaggart F, Buckett L, Davidson R, et al. Preclinical and clinical pharmacology of Rosuvastatin, a new 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitor. Am J Cardiol. 2001;87:28B–32B.
  • Busti AJ, Bain AM, Hall RG 2nd, et al. Effects of atazanavir/ritonavir or fosamprenavir/ritonavir on the pharmacokinetics of rosuvastatin. J Cardovasc Pharmacol. 2008;51:605–610.
  • Hoody DW, Kiser JJ, Predhomme J. et al. Drug-drug interaction between lopinavir/ritonavir and rosuvastatin. 14th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections; 2007 Feb 25–28; Los Angeles, California. Poster 564.
  • Fichtenbaum C, Samineni D, Moore E, et al. Darunavir/ritonavir increases rosuvastatin concentrations but does not alter lipid-lowering effect in healthy volunteers. 18th International AIDS Conference; 2010July 18–23; Vienna, Austria. Poster WePE0101.
  • Custodio JM, Wang H, Hao J, et al. Pharmacokinetics of cobicistat boosted-elvitegravir administered in combination with rosuvastatin. J Clin Pharmacol. 2014;54:649–656.
  • Garnett WR. A review of current clinical findings with fluvastatin. Am J Cardiol. 1996;78:20–25.
  • Sekar VJ, Spinosa-Guzman S, Marien K, et al. Pharmacokinetic drug-drug interaction between the new HIV protease inhibitor darunavir (TMC114) and the lipid-lowering agent pravastatin. 8th International Workshop on Clinical Pharmacology of HIV Therapy; 2007 April; Budapest. abstract 54.
  • Aquilante CL, Kiser JJ, Anderson PL, et al. Influence of SLCO1B1 polymorphisms on the drug-drug interaction between darunavir/ritonavir and pravastatin. J Clin Pharmacol. 2011;52:1725–1738.
  • Van Luin M, Colbers A, Van Ewijk-Beneken Kolmer EW, et al. Drug-drug interactions between raltegravir and pravastatin in healthy volunteers. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2010;55:82–86.
  • Corsini A, Ceska R. Drug-drug interactions with statins: will pitavastatin overcome the statins’ Achilles’ heel? Curr Med Res Opin. 2011;27:1551–1562.
  • Morgan RE, Campbell SE, Suehira K, et al. Effects of steadystate lopinavir/ritonavir on the pharmacokinetics of pitavastatin in healthy adult volunteers. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2012;60:158–164.
  • Malvestutto CD, Ma Q, Morse GD, et al. Lack of pharmacokinetic interactions between pitavastatin and efavirenz or darunavir/ritonavir. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2014;67:390–396.
  • Yu CY, Campbell SE, Sponseller CA, et al. Steadystate pharmacokinetics of darunavir/ritonavir and pitavastatin when coadministered to healthy adult volunteers. Clin Drug Invest. 2014;34:475–482.
  • Reyataz (Atazanavir). Summary of product characteristics. Dublin, Ireland: Bristol-Myers Squibb Company; 2009 March 2. revised 2019 Mar 31.
  • Tornio A, Neuvonen PJ, Niemi M, et al. Role of gemfibrozil as an inhibitor of CYP2C8 and membrane transporters.Expert. Opin Drug Metab Toxicol. 2017;13:83–95.
  • Busse KH, Hadigan C, Chairez C, et al. Gemfibrozil concentrations are significantly decreased in the presence of lopinavir-ritonavir. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2009;52:235–239.
  • Prueksaritanont T, Richards KM, Qiu Y, et al. Comparative effects of fibrates on drug metabolizing enzymes in human hepatocytes. Pharm Res. 2005;22:71–78.
  • Gordon L, Malati C, Hadigan C, et al. Lack of an effect of ritonavir alone and lopinavir-ritonavir on the pharmacokinetics of fenofibric acid in healthy volunteers. Pharmacotherapy. 2016;36:49–56.
  • Phan BA, Dayspring TD, Toth PP. Ezetimibe therapy: mechanism of action and clinical update. Vasc Health Risk Manag. 2012;8:415–427.
  • Juxtapid (Lomitapide). Summary of product characteristics. Ireland: Amryt Pharmaceuticals DAC; 2018 Apr 23. revised 2019 Jul 18.
  • Goulooze SC, Cohen AF, Rissmann R. Lomitapide. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2015;80:179–181.
  • Sabatine MS, Giugliano RP, Keech AC, et al. Evolocumab and clinical outcomes in patients with cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med. 2017;376:1713–1722.
  • Gonga L, SrijibGoswamic KM, Giacominic RB, et al. Kleina Metformin pathways: pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Pharmacogenet Genomics. 2012;22:820–827.
  • Viollet B, Guigas B, Sanz Garcia N, et al. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of metformin: an overview. Clin Sci (Lond). 2012;122:253–270.
  • Zhou M, Xia L, Wang J. Metformin transport by a newly cloned proton-stimulated organic cation transporter (plasma membrane monoamine transporter) expressed in human intestine. Drug Metab Dispos. 2007;35:1956–1962.
  • Graham GG, Punt J, Arora M, et al. Clinical pharmacokinetics of metformin. ClinPharmacokinet. 2011;50:81–98.
  • Takane H, Shikata E, Otsubo K, et al. Polymorphism in human organic cation transporters and metformin action. Pharmacogenomics. 2008;9:415–422.
  • Tanihara Y, Masuda S, Sato T, et al. Substrate specificity of MATE1 and MATE2-K, human multidrug and toxin extrusions/H(+)-organic cationantiporters. Biochem Pharmacol. 2007;74:359–371.
  • Evotaz Summary of product characteristics. Bristol-Myers Squibb Pharmaceuticals Ltd; 2018 November.
  • Rezolsta Summary of Product Characteristics, Janssen-CilagLtd, June 2018.
  • Zhang H, West S, Vu A, et al. Lack of clinically relevant effect of bictegravir on metformin pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. 18th International Workshop on Clinical Pharmacology of Antiviral Therapy; 2017 June; Chicago. abstract P50.
  • Naccarato M, Yoong D, Fong IW. Dolutegravir and metformin: a case of hyperlactatemia. AIDS. 2017;31:2176–2177.
  • Cattaneo D, Resnati C, Rizzardin G, et al. Dolutegravir and metformin: a clinically relevant or just a pharmacokinetic interaction? AIDS. 2018;32:532–533.
  • Campbell DB, Adriaenssens PI, Hopkins YW, et al. Pharmacokinetics and metabolism of gliclazide. A review. Royal Soc Med Int Congr Symp. 1980;20:71–82.
  • Zhou L, Naraharisetti S.B, Liu L, et al.. Contributions of human cytochrome P450 enzymes to glyburide metabolism. Biopharm Drug Dispos. 2010;31:228–242.
  • Miyazaki Y, Mahankali A, Matsuda M, et al. Improved glycemic control and enhanced insulin sensitivity in type 2 diabetic subjects treated with pioglitazone. Diabetes Care. 2001;24:710–719.
  • Eckland DA, Danhof M. Clinical pharmacokinetics of pioglitazone. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes. 2000;108(suppl 2):234–242.
  • Landgraf R. Meglitinide analogues in thetreatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Drugs Aging. 2000;17:411–425.
  • Hatorp V. Clinical pharmaco kinetics and pharmacodynamics of repaglinide. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2002;41:471–483.
  • Weaver ML, Orwig BA, Rodriguez LC, et al. Pharmacokinetics and metabolism of nateglinide in humans. Drug Metab Dispos. 2001;29:415–421.
  • Deacon CF, Lebovitz HE. A Comparative review of DPP‐4 inhibitors and sulphonylureas. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2015;18:333‐47.
  • Thornberry NA, Gallwitz B. Mechanism of action of inhibitors of dipeptidyl-peptidase-4 (DPP-4). Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009;23:479–486.
  • Craddy P, Palin HJ, Johnson KI. Comparative effectiveness of dipeptidylpeptidase-4 inhibitors in type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and mixed treatment comparison. Diabetes Ther. 2014;5:1.
  • Green JB, Bethel MA, Armstrong PW, et al. Effect of sitagliptin on cardiovascular outcomes in Type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2015;373:232.
  • Rosenstock J, Perkovic V, Johansen OE, et al. Effect of Linagliptin vs. placebo on major cardiovascular events in adults with type 2 diabetes and high cardiovascular and renal risk: the CARMELINA randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2019;321:69–79.
  • Zou H, Zhou B, Xu G. SGLT2 inhibitors: a novel choice for the combination therapy in diabetic kidney disease. Cardiovasc Diabetol. 2017;16:65.
  • Ceriello A, Sportiello L, Rafaniello C, et al. DPP-4 inhibitors: pharmacological differences and their clinical implications. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2014;13(Suppl 1):S57–68.
  • Boulton DW. Clinical pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of saxagliptin, a Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4 Inhibitor. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2017;56:11–24.
  • Graefe-Mody U, Retlich S, Friedrich C. Clinical pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of linagliptin. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2012;51:411–427.
  • He YL. Clinical pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of vildagliptin. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2012;51:147–162.
  • Plosker GL. Sitagliptin: a review of its use in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Drugs. 2014;74:223–242.
  • Sitagliptina (Januvia®) Merck Sharp & Dohme Ltd. 2018. [cited 2019 Aug]. Available from: https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/product-information/januvia-epar-product-information_en.pdf
  • Zander M, Madsbad S, Madsen JL, et al. Effect of 6-week course of glucagon-like peptide 1 on glycaemic control, insulin sensitivity, and beta-cell function in type 2 diabetes: a parallel-group study. Lancet. 2002;359:824–830.
  • Prasad-Reddy Land Isaacs D A clinical review of GLP-1 receptor agonists: efficacy and safety in diabetes and beyond. Drugs Context. 2015;4:212283.
  • Sfairopoulos D, Liatis S, Tigas S, et al. Clinical pharmacology of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists. Hormones (Athens). 2018;17:333–350.
  • Monami M, Nreu B, Scatena A, et al. Safety issues with glucagon-like peptide-1receptor agonists (pancreatitis, pancreatic cancer and cholelithiasis): data from randomized controlled trials. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2017;19:1233–1241.
  • Dalsgaard NB, Brønden A, Vilsbøll T, et al. Cardiovascular safety and benefits of GLP-1 receptor agonists. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2017;16:351–363.
  • Robles GI, Singh-Franco D. A review of exenatide as adjunctive therapy in patients with type 2 diabetes. Drug Des Devel Ther. 2009;3:219–240.
  • Thompson AM, Trujillo JM. Advances in the treatment of type 2 diabetes: impact of dulaglutide. Diabetes Metab Syndr Obes. 2016;9:125–136.
  • Jacobsen LV, Flint A, Olsen AK, et al. Liraglutide in Type 2 Diabetes mellitus: clinical pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2016;55:657–672.
  • Bhartia M, Tahrani AA, Barnett AH. SGLT-2 inhibitors in development for type 2 diabetes treatment. Rev Diabet Stud. 2011;8:348–354.
  • Mende CW. Diabetes and kidney disease: the role of sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT-2) and SGLT-2 inhibitors in modifying disease outcomes. Curr Med Res Opin. 2017;33:541–551.
  • Pradhan A, Vohra S, Vishwakarma P, et al. Review on sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitor (SGLT2i) in diabetes mellitus and heart failure. J Family Med Prim Care. 2019;8:1855–1862.
  • Kalra S. Sodium Glucose Co-Transporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitors: a review of their basic and clinical pharmacology. Diabetes Ther. 2014 Dec;5(2):355–366.
  • Farxiga [dapagliflozin]. Summary of product characteristics. [cited 2019 Aug 25]. Wilmington, DE: AstraZeneca Pharmaceuticals LP; 2017.
  • Jardiance [empagliflozin]. Summary of product characteristics. 19. Ridgefield, CT: Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc.; 2016.
  • Devineni D, Polidori D. Clinical pharmacokinetic, pharmacodynamic, and drug-drug interaction profile of canagliflozin, a sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 Inhibitor. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2015;54:1027–1041.
  • Munir KM, Davis SN. Differential pharmacology and clinical utility of empagliflozin in type 2 diabetes. Clin Pharmacol. 2016;8:19–34.
  • Kasichayanula S, Liu X, Lacreta F, et al. Clinical pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of dapagliflozin, a selective inhibitor of sodium-glucose co-transporter type 2. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2014;53:17–27.
  • Lebovitz HE. Alpha- Glucosidase inhibitors. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 1997;2(6):539–551.
  • Inzucchi SE. Oral antihyperglycemic therapy for type 2 diabetes: scientific review. JAMA. 2002;287:360–372.
  • Davies MJ, D’Alessio DA, Fradkin J, et al. Management of hyperglycemia in type 2 Diabetes, 2018. A consensus report by the American diabetes association (ADA) and the European association for the study of diabetes (EASD). Diabetes Care. 2018;41:2669–2701.
  • Hanefeld M, Schaper F. The role of alpha-glucosidase inhibitors (Acarbose). In: Mogensen CE, editor. Pharmacotherapy of diabetes: new developments.  2nd ed. Boston (MA): Springer; 2007. p. 143–52.
  • Videx Prescribing Information, Bristol-Myers Squibb Co, December 2018.
  • Garvey WT, Mechanick JI, Brett EM, et al. AACE/ACE obesity clinical practice guidelines American association of clinical endocrinologists and american college of endocrinology comprehensive clinical practice guidelines for medical care of patients with obesity executive summary. Endocr Pract. 2016;22:842.
  • Yanovski SZ, Yanovski JA. Long-term drug treatment for obesity: a systematic and clinical review. JAMA. 2014;311:74–86.
  • Bansal AB, Al Khalili Y. Orlistat. StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2019 [Last Update 2019 Aug 3].
  • Gustafson A, King C, Rey JA. Lorcaserin (Belviq). A selective serotonin 5-HT2C agonist in the treatment of obesity. P T. 2013;38:525–534.
  • Fidler MC, Sanchez M, Raether B, et al. A one-year randomized trial of lorcaserin for weight loss in obese and overweight adults: the BLOSSOM trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96:3067–3077.
  • Bohula EA, Wiviott SD, McGuire DK, et al. Cardiovascular safety of lorcaserin in overweight or obese patients. N Engl J Med. 2018;379:1107–1117.
  • Smit M, Brinkman K, Geerlings S, et al. Future challenges for clinical care of an ageing population infected with HIV: a modelling study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2015;15:810–818.
  • Gutierrez M Del M, Mateo MG, Vidal F, et al. Drug safety profile of integrase strand transfer inhibitors. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2014;13:431–445.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.