Changes through the lens? US photographic newspaper coverage of female high school athletes

REFERENCES

• Alcoff, Linda. ‘Cultural Feminism Versus Post-Structuralism: The Identity Crisis in Feminist Theory’. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society13 (1988): 405–36.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alexander, Sally. ‘Women, Class and Sexual Differences’. In Feminism and Equality, ed. AnnePhillips, 160–75. New York: New York University Press, 1987.
   Google Scholar
• Baker, Aaron. Contesting Identities: Sports in American Film. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2003.
   Google Scholar
• Barthes, Roland. Image, Music, Text. Trans. Stephen HeathNew York: Hill & Wang, 1977.
   Google Scholar
• Bernstein, Alina and NeilBlain, eds. ‘Sport and the Media: The Emergence of a Major Research Field’. Sport, Media, and Culture, 1–30. London: Routledge, 2003.
   Google Scholar
• Betterton, Rosemary, ed. ‘Looking On: Images of Femininity in the Visual Arts and Media’. London: Pandora, 1987.
   Google Scholar
• Billings, Andrew C. ‘Depicting the Quarterback in Black and White: A Content Analysis of College and Professional Football Broadcast Commentary’. The Howard Journal of Communications15 (2004): 201–10.
   Google Scholar
• Billings, Andrew C. ‘In Search of Women Athletes: ESPN's List of the Top 100 Athletes of the Century’. Journal of Sport and Social Issues24 (2000): 415–21.
   Google Scholar
• Billings, Andrew C., Kelby K.Halone, and Bryan E.Denham. ‘“Man, That Was a Pretty Shot”: An Analysis of Gendered Broadcast Commentary Surrounding the 2000 Men's and Women's NCAA Final Four Basketball Championships’. Mass Communication and Society5 (2002): 295–315.
   Google Scholar
• Birrell, Susan, and Cheryl L.Cole. ‘Double Fault: Renee Richards and the Construction and Naturalization of Difference’. Sociology of Sport Journal7 (1990): 1–21.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brah, Avtar, and AnnPhoenix. ‘Ain't I a Woman? Revisiting Intersectionality’. Journal of International Women's Studies5 (2004): 75–86.
   Google Scholar
• Brooks, Dwight E., and Lisa P.Hébert. ‘Gender, Race, and Media Representation’. In Gender, Race, and Class in Media: A Text-Reader, ed. Dwight E.Brooks, 297–317. Minneapolis, MN: Sage, 2002.
   Google Scholar
• Butler, Judith. Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of “Sex”. New York: Routledge, 1993.
   Google Scholar
• Cahn, Susan K.Coming on Strong: Gender and Sexuality in Twentieth-Century Women's Sport. New York: Free Press, 1994.
   Google Scholar
• Carlston, Donal E. ‘An Environmental Explanation for Race Differences in Basketball Performance’. In Fractured Focus: Sport as a Reflection of Society, ed. Richard E.Lapchick, 87–108. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1986.
   Google Scholar
• Cole, C. L. ‘One Chromosome Too Many?’ In The Olympics at the Millennium: Power, Politics, and the Games, ed. KaySchaffer and SidonieSmith, 128–46. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2000.
   Google Scholar
• Collins, Patricia Hill. Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment., 2nd ed.New York: Routledge, 2000.
   Google Scholar
• Connell, Raewyn W.Gender & Power. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1987.
   Google Scholar
• Connell, Raewyn W.Masculinities., 2nd ed.Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005.
   Google Scholar
• Cooky, Cheryl, RanissaDycus, and Shari L.Dworkin. ‘“What Makes a Woman a Woman?” Versus “Our First Lady of Sport”: A Comparative Analysis of the United States and the South African Media Coverage of Caster Semenya’. Journal of Sport and Social Issues37 (2013): 31–56.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coventry, Barbara. ‘On the Sidelines: Sex and Racial Segregation in Televised Sports Broadcasting’. Sociology of Sport Journal21 (2004): 322–41.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crenshaw, Kimberle. ‘Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence Against Women of Color’. Stanford Law Review43 (July 1991): 1241–99.
   Google Scholar
• Cuneen, Jacquelyn, and M. JoySidwell. ‘Gender Portrayals in Sports Illustrated for Kids Advertisements: A Content Analysis of Prominent and Supporting Models’. Journal of Sport Management12 (1998): 39–50.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• D'Angelo, Paul. ‘News Framing as Multiparadigmatic Research Program: A Response to Entman’. Journal of Communication52 (2002): 870–88.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Delgado, Richard, and JeanStefancic. Critical Race Theory: An Introduction, 2nd ed.New York: New York University Press, 2012.
   Google Scholar
• Douglas, Delia D. ‘To Be Young, Gifted, Black and Female: A Meditation on the Cultural Politics at Play in Representations of Venus and Serena Williams’. Sociology of Sport, 2002. http://physed.otago.ac.nz/sosol/v5i2/v5i2_3.html.
   Google Scholar
• Duncan, Margaret Carlisle. ‘Gender Warriors in Sport: Women and the Media’. In Handbook of Sports and Media, ed. Arthur A.Raney and JenningsBryant, 247–69. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2006.
   Google Scholar
• Duncan, Margaret Carlisle. ‘Sports Photographs and Sexual Difference: Images of Women and Men in the 1984 and 1988 Olympic Games’. Sociology of Sport Journal7 (1990): 22–43.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duncan, Margaret Carlisle, and Cynthia A.Hasbrook. ‘Denial of Power in Televised Women's Sports’. In Gender and Sport: A Reader, ed. SheilaScraton and AnneFlintoff, 83–93. New York: Routledge, 2002.
   Google Scholar
• Duncan, Margaret Carlisle, and AmounSayaovong. ‘Photographic Images and Gender in Sports Illustrated for Kids’. Play & Culture3 (1990): 91–116.
   Google Scholar
• Eastman, Susan Tyler, and Andrew C.Billings. ‘Gender Parity in the Olympics: Hyping Women Athletes, Favoring Men Athletes’. Journal of Sport and Social Issues23 (1999): 140–70.
   Google Scholar
• Eastman, Susan Tyler, and Andrew C.Billings. ‘Sportscasting and Sports Reporting: The Power of Gender Bias’. Journal of Sport and Social Issues24 (2000): 192–213.
   Google Scholar
• Entman, Robert M. ‘Framing: Towards Clarification of a Fractured Paradigm’. Journal of Communication43 (1993): 51–8.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Entman, Robert M. ‘Framing US Coverage of International News: Contrasts in Narratives of the KAL and Iran Air Incidents’. Journal of Communication41 (1991): 6–27.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fausto-Sterling, Anne. Sexing the Body: Gender Politics and the Construction of Sexuality. New York: Basic Books, 2000.
   Google Scholar
• Fink, Janet, and Linda JeanKensicki. ‘An Imperceptible Difference: Visual and Contextual Constructions of Femininity in Sports Illustrated and Sports Illustrated for Women’. Mass Communication and Society5 (2002): 317–39.
   Google Scholar
• Gamson, William A. ‘News as Framing: Comments on Graber’. American Behavioral Scientist33 (1989): 157–66.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gans, Herbert J.Deciding What's News: A Study of CBS Evening News, NBC Nightly News, Newsweek, and Time. New York: Patheon, 1979.
   Google Scholar
• Goffman, Erving. Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience. New York: Harper and Row, 1974.
   Google Scholar
• Grainger, Andrew, Joshua I.Newman, and David L.Andrews. ‘Sport, the Media, and the Construction of Race’. In Handbook of Sports and Media, ed. Arthur A.Raney and JenningsBryant, 482–505. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2006.
   Google Scholar
• Griffin, Pat. Strong Women, Deep Closets: Lesbians and Homophobia in Sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1998.
   Google Scholar
• Hall, Stuart. ‘Race, Articulation, and Societies Structured in Dominance’. Sociological Theories: Race and Colonialism, 305–45. Paris, France: UNESCO Press, 1980.
   Google Scholar
• Hardin, Marie, SusanLynn, and KristieWalsdorf. ‘Challenge and Conformity on “Contested Terrain”: Images of Women in Four Women's Sport/Fitness Magazines’. Sex Roles53 (2005): 105–17.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hardin, Marie, SusanLynn, KristieWalsdorf, and BrentHardin. ‘The Framing of Sexual Difference in SI for Kids Editorial Photos’. Mass Communication and Society5 (2002): 341–59.
   Google Scholar
• Hartman, Douglas. ‘What Can We Learn From Sport If We Take Sport Seriously as a Racial Force?’ Ethnic and Racial Studies26 (2003): 451–83.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Higginbotham, Evelyn Brooks. ‘African-American Women's History and the Metalanguage of Race’. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society19 (1992): 251–74.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holsti, Ole R.Content Analysis for the Social Sciences and Humanities. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1969.
   Google Scholar
• Kane, Mary Jo. ‘Resistance/Transformation of the Oppositional Binary: Exposing Sport as a Continuum’. Journal of Sport and Social Issues19 (1995): 191–218.
   Google Scholar
• Kane, Mary Jo, and Helen JeffersonLenskyj. ‘Media Treatment of Female Athletes: Issues of Gender and Sexualities’. In MediaSport, ed. Lawrence A.Wenner, 186–201. New York: Routledge, 1998.
   Google Scholar
• Kawash, Samira. Dislocating the Colorline: Identity, Hybridity, and Singularity in the African American Narrative. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Kian, Edward M., and GalenClavio. ‘A Comparison of Online Media and Traditional Newspaper Coverage of the Men's and Women's US Open Tennis Tournaments’. Journal of Sports Media6 (2011): 55–84.
   Google Scholar
• Kian, Edward M., MichaelMondello, and JohnVincent. ‘ESPN: The Women's Sports Network? A Content Analysis of Internet Coverage of March Madness’. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media53 (2009): 477–95.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kian, Edward M., JohnVincent, and MichaelMondello. ‘Masculine Hegemonic Hoops: An Analysis of Media Coverage of March Madness’. Sociology of Sport Journal25 (2008): 223–42.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kinnick, Katherine N. ‘Gender Bias in Newspaper Profiles of 1996 Olympic Athletes: A Content Analysis of Five Major Dailies’. Women's Studies in Communication21 (1998): 212–37.
   Google Scholar
• Kuhn, Annette. The Power of the Image: Essays on Representation and Sexuality. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985.
   Google Scholar
• Kuypers, Jim A. ‘Framing Analysis From a Rhetorical Perspective’. In Doing News Framing Analysis: Empirical and Theoretical Perspectives, ed. PaulD'Angelo and Jim A.Kuypers, 286–311. New York: Taylor & Francis, 2010.
   Google Scholar
• Lawrence, Regina G. ‘Researching Political News Framing: Established Ground and New Horizons’. In Doing News Framing Analysis: Empirical and Theoretical Perspectives, ed. PaulD'Angelo and Jim A.Kuypers, 265–85. New York: Taylor & Francis, 2010.
   Google Scholar
• Messner, Michael A.Taking the Field: Women, Men, and Sports. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002.
   Google Scholar
• Miller, Tricia, Geoffrey A.Lawrence, JimMcKay, and DavidRowe. Globalization and Sport: Playing the World. London: Sage, 2001.
   Google Scholar
• Nakayama, Thomas K. and Judith N.Martin, eds. ‘Whiteness: The Communication of Social Identity’. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1999.
   Google Scholar
• Nelson, Mariah Burton. The Stronger Women Get, the More Men Love Football: Sexism and the American Culture of Sports. New York: Harcourt Brace & Co, 1994.
   Google Scholar
• Omi, Michael, and HowardWinant. Racial Formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1980s. New York: Routledge, 1986.
   Google Scholar
• Patton, Michael Quinn. Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods., 2nd ed.Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1990.
   Google Scholar
• Pedersen, Paul Mark. ‘Investigating Interscholastic Equity on the Sports Page: A Content Analysis of High School Athletics Newspaper Articles’. Sociology of Sport Journal19 (2002): 419–32.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Primm, Eric S., SummerDuBois, and Robert M.Regoli. ‘An Exercise in Subtleties and the Transmission of Racism: An Analysis of Sports Illustrated Covers’. African American Studies11 (2007): 239–50.
   Google Scholar
• Sontag, Susan. On Photography. New York: Farrar, Straus, & Giroux, 1977.
   Google Scholar
• Sykes, Heather. ‘Transsexual and Transgender Policies in Sport’. Women and Physical Activity Journal15 (2006): 3–13.
   Google Scholar
• Tuchman, Gaye. Making News: A Study in the Construction of Reality. New York: Free Press, 1978.
   Google Scholar
• Tuchman, Gaye, Arlene KaplanDaniels, and James W.Benet. Hearth and Home: Images of Women in the Mass Media. London: Oxford University Press, 1978.
   Google Scholar
• van Sterkenburg, Jacco, and AnneliesKnoppers. ‘Dominant Discourses About Race/Ethnicity and Gender in Sport Practice and Performance’. International Review for the Sociology of Sport39 (2004): 301–21.
   Google Scholar
• Vincent, John, and JaneCrossman. ‘Champions, a Celebrity Crossover, and a Capitulator: The Construction of Gender in Broadsheet Newspapers’ Narratives About Selected Competitors During “The Championships”’. International Journal of Sport Communication1 (2008): 78–102.
   Google Scholar
• Walker, Alice. In Search of Our Mothers' Gardens: Womanist Prose. Orlando, FL: Harcourt Books, 1983.
   Google Scholar
• Wann, Daniel L., Michael P.Schrader, Julie A.Allison, and Kimberly K.McGeorge. ‘The Inequitable Newspaper Coverage of Men's and Women's Athletics at Small, Medium, and Large Universities’. Journal of Sport and Social Issues22 (1998): 79–87.
   Google Scholar
• Weathers, Mary Ann. ‘An Argument for Black Women's Liberation as a Revolutionary Force’. No More Fun and Games: A Journal of Female Liberation1 (1969), http://library.duke.edu/rubenstein/scriptorium/wlm/fun-games2/argument.html.
   Google Scholar
• Wicks, Robert H. ‘Message Framing and Constructing Meaning: An Emerging Paradigm in Mass Communication Research’. Communication Yearbook29 (2005): 333–61.
   Google Scholar
• Williams, Fannie Barrier. ‘The Colored Girl’. In Invented Lives: Narratives of Black Women, 1860-1960, ed. Mary HelenWashington, 150–156. New York: Anchor Books, 1987. [Original work published 1905].
   Google Scholar
• Zimmerman, John, MarkKauffman, and NeilLeifer. Photographing Sports: Capturing the Excitement of People in Action. Dobbs Ferry, NY: Morgan & Morgan, 1975.
   Google Scholar