Impulsive versus reflective influences on health behavior: a theoretical framework and empirical review

References

• Aarts , H. , Dijksterhuis , A. and De Vries , P. 2001 . On the psychology of drinking: Being thirsty and perceptually ready . British Journal of Psychology , 92 : 631
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Achtziger , A. and Gollwitzer , P. M. 2008 . Implementation intentions and shielding goal striving from unwanted thoughts and feelings . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 34 : 381 – 393 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ajzen , I. 1991 . The theory of planned behavior . Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes , 50 : 179 – 211 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Armitage , C. J. and Conner , M. 2001 . Efficacy of the theory of planned behavior: A meta-analytic review . British Journal of Social Psychology , 40 : 471 – 499 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asendorpf , J. B. , Banse , R. and Mücke , D. 2002 . Double dissociation between implicit and explicit personality self-concept: The case of shy behavior . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 83 : 380 – 393 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baddeley , A. D. and Hitch , G. J. 1974 . “ Working memory ” . In The psychology of learning and motivation , Edited by: Bower , G. A. Vol. 8 , 47 – 90 . New York : Academic .
   Google Scholar
• Bagozzi , R. P. 1992 . The self-regulation of attitudes, intentions, and behavior . Social Psychology Quarterly , 55 : 178 – 204 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bandura , A. 1977 . Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change . Psychological Review , 84 : 191 – 215 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bandura , A. 1986 . Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory , Englewood Cliffs, NJ : Prentice-Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Bandura , A. 2001 . Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective . Annual Review of Psychology , 52 : 1 – 26 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bargh , J. A. , Gollwitzer , P. M. , Lee-Chai , A. , Barndollar , K. and Troetschel , R. 2001 . The automated will: Nonconscious activation and pursuit of behavioral goals . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 81 : 1014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barrett , L. F. , Tugade , M. M. and Engle , R. W. 2004 . Individual differences in working memory capacity and dual-process theories of the mind . Psychological Bulletin , 130 : 553 – 573 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baumeister , R. F. , Bratslavsky , E. , Muraven , M. , Tice , D. M. , & Baumeister , R. F. 1999 . Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource? In The self in social psychology . (pp. 317 ): Psychology Press .
   Google Scholar
• Baumeister , R. F. , Bratslavsky , M. , Muraven , M. and Tice , D. M. 1998 . Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource? . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 74 : 1252 – 1265 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baumeister , R. F. , Gailliot , M. T. , De Wall , C. N. and Oaten , M. 2006 . Self-regulation and personality: How interventions increase regulatory success, and how depletion moderates the effects of traits on behavior . Journal of Personality , 74 : 1773 – 1801 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baumeister , R. F. and Heatherton , T. F. 1996 . Self-regulation failure: An overview . Psychological Inquiry , 7 : 1 – 15 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baumeister , R. F. , Heatherton , T. F. and Tice , D. M. 1994 . Losing control: How and why people fail at self-regulation , San Diego : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Bechara , A. , Noel , X. and Crone , E. A. 2006 . “ Loss of Willpower: Abnormal Neural Mechanisms of Impulse Control and Decision Making in Addiction ” . In Handbook of implicit cognition and addiction , Edited by: Wiers , R. W. and Stacy , A. W. 215 – 232 . Thousand Oaks, CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Bless , H. 2001 . “ The consequences of mood on the processing of social information ” . In Blackwell Handbook in Social Psychology , Edited by: Tesser , A. and Schwarz , N. 391 – 412 . Oxford, , UK : Blackwell .
   Google Scholar
• Bless , H. , Clore , G. L. , Schwarz , N. , Golisano , V. , Rabe , C. and Wölk , M. 1996 . Mood and the use of scripts: Does happy mood make people really mindless . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 63 : 585 – 595 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bogg , T. and Roberts , B. W. 2004 . Conscientiousness and health-related behaviors: A meta-analysis of the leading behavioral contributors to mortality . Psychological Bulletin , 130 : 887 – 919 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bolte , A. , Goschke , T. and Kuhl , J. 2003 . Emotion and intuition: Effects of positive and negative mood on implicit judgments of semantic coherence . Psychological Science , 14 : 416 – 421 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boon , B. , Stroebe , W. , Shut , H. and Ijntema , R. 2002 . Ironic processes in the eating behavior of restrained eaters . British Journal of Health Psychology , 7 : 1 – 10 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brannon , L. and Feist , J. 2000 . Health psychology: An introduction to behavior and health , Belmont, CA : Wadsworth .
   Google Scholar
• Brehm , J. W. 1966 . A theory of psychological reactance , New York : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Bruyneel , S. , Dewitte , S. , Vohs , K. D. and Warlop , L. 2006 . Repeated choosing increases susceptibility to affective product features . Journal of Research in Marketing , 23 : 215 – 225 .
   Google Scholar
• Bushman , B. J. and Cooper , H. M. 1990 . Effects of alcohol on human aggression: An integrative research review . Psychological Bulletin , 107 : 341 – 354 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carver , C. S. 2005 . Impulse and constraint: Perspectives from personality psychology, convergence with theory in other areas, and potential for integration . Personality and Social Psychology Review , 9 : 312 – 333 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carver , C. S. and Scheier , M. F. 1981 . Attention and self-regulation: A control-theory approach to human behavior , New York : Springer-Verlag .
   Google Scholar
• Carver , C. S. and White , T. L. 1994 . Behavioral inhibition, behavioral activation, and affective responses to impending reward and punishment: The BIS/BAS scales . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 67 : 319 – 333 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen , M. and Bargh , J. 1999 . Consequences of automatic evaluation: Immediate behavioral predispositions to approach or avoid the stimulus . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 25 : 215 – 224 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cialdini , R. B. , Trost , M. R. and Newsom , J. T. 1995 . Preference for consistency: The development of a valid measure and the discovery of surprising behavioral implications . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 69 : 318 – 328 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collins , R. L. and Lapp , W. M. 1992 . The temptation and restraint inventory for measuring drinking restraint . British Journal of Addiction , 87 : 625 – 633 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Conner , M. , Perugini , M. , O'Gorman , Ayres , K. , & Prestwich , A. 2007 . Relations between implicit and explicit measures of attitudes and measures of behavior: Evidence of moderation by individual difference variables . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 33 , 1727 – 1740 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conrey , F. R. , Sherman , J. W. , Gawronski , B. , Hugenberg , K. and Groom , C. J. 2005 . Separating Multiple Processes in Implicit Social Cognition: The Quad Model of Implicit Task Performance . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 89 : 469
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Houwer , J. 2006 . “ What are implicit measures and why are we using them? ” . In The handbook of implicit cognition and addiction , Edited by: Wiers , R. W. and Stacy , A. W. 11 – 28 . Thousand Oaks, CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Dwyer , D. M. , Jarratt , F. and Dick , K. 2007 . Evaluative conditioning with foods as CSs and body shapes as USs: No evidence for sex differences, extinction, or overshadowing . Cognition & Emotion , 21 : 281 – 299 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Easdon , C. M. and Vogel-Sprott , M. 2000 . Aclohol and behavioral control: Impaired response inhibition and flexibility in social drinkers . Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology , 8 : 387 – 394 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Egloff , B. and Schmukle , S. C. 2002 . Predictive validity of an Implicit Association Test for assessing anxiety . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 83 : 1441 – 1455 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Epstein , S. 1990 . “ Cognitive-experiential self-theory ” . In Handbook of personality. Theory and research , Edited by: Pervin , L. A. 165 – 192 . New York : Guilford .
   Google Scholar
• Epstein , S. 1994 . Integration of the cognitive and psychodynamic unconscious . American Psychologist , 49 : 709 – 724 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evans , J. S. B. T. 2008 . Dual-processing accounts of reasoning, judgment, and social cognition . Annual Review of Psychology , 59 , 255 – 278 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Everitt , B. J. and Robbins , T. W. 2005 . Neural systems of reinforcement for drug addiction: from actions to habits to compulsion . Nature Neuroscience , 8 : 1481 – 1489 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fadardi , J. S. and Cox , W. M. 2007 . Alcohol Attention-Control Training Program . The Addictions Newsletter , 14 : 16 – 17 .
   Google Scholar
• Fazio , R. H. 1990 . “ Multiple processes by which attitudes guide behavior: The MODE model as an integrative framework ” . In Advances in experimental social psychology , Edited by: Zanna , M. P. Vol. 23 , 75 – 109 . New York : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Fazio , R. H. , Jackson , J. R. , Dunton , B. C. and Williams , C. J. 1995 . Variability in automatic activation as an unobtrusive measure of racial attitudes: A bona fide pipeline? . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 69 : 1013 – 1027 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fazio , R. H. and Olson , M. A. 2003 . Implicit measures in social cognition research: Their meaning and uses . Annual Review of Psychology , 54 : 297 – 327 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fazio , R. H. and Towels-Schwen , T. 1999 . “ The MODE Model of attitude-behavior processes ” . In Dual-process theories in social psychology , Edited by: Chaiken , S. and Trope , Y. 97 – 116 . New York, NY : The Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Fedoroff , I. C. , Polivy , J. and Herman , C. P. 1997 . The effect of pre-exposure to food cues on the eating behavior of restrained and unrestrained eaters . Appetite , 28 : 33 – 47 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferguson , M. J. and Bargh , J. A. 2004 . Liking is for doing:The effects of goal pursuit on automatic evaluation . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 87 : 557 – 572 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Festinger , L. 1957 . A theory of cognitive dissonance . Stanford, CA : Stanford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Fiedler , K. and Bluemke , M. 2005 . Faking the IAT: Aided and unaided response control on the Implicit Association Tests . Basic and Applied Social Psychology , 27 : 307 – 316 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Field , M. , Duka , T. , Eastwood , B. , Child , R. , Santarcangelo , M. and Gayton , M. 2007 . Experimental manipulation of attentional biases in heavy drinkers: do the effects generalise? . Psychopharmacology , 192 : 593 – 608 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Field , M. , Mogg , K. and Bradley , B. P. 2005 . Craving and cognitive biases for alcohol cues in social drinkers . Alcohol and Alcoholism , 40 : 504 – 510 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fillmore , M. T. and Vogel-Sprott , M. 2006 . “ Acute effects of alcohol and other drugs on automatic and intentional control ” . In Handbook of implicit cognition and addiction , Edited by: Wiers , R. W. and Stacy , A. W. 293 – 306 . Thousand Oaks, CA : SAGE .
   Google Scholar
• Fischbach , A. and Dhar , R. 2005 . Goals as excuses or guides: The liberating effect of perceived goal progress on choice . Journal of Consumer Research , 32 : 370 – 377 .
   Google Scholar
• Fishbach , A. , Friedman , R. S. and Kruglanski , A. W. 2003 . Leading us not unto temptation: Momentary allurements elicit overriding goal activation . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 84 : 296 – 309 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fishbein , M. , & Ajzen , I. 1975 . Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior: An introduction to theory and research . Reading, MA : Addison-Wesley .
   Google Scholar
• Freud , S. 1930 . Civilization and its discontents , London : Hogarth .
   Google Scholar
• Friese , M. , & Hofmann , W. 2008 . What would you have as a last supper? Thoughts about death influence evaluation and consumption of food products . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 44 , 1388 – 1394 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friese , M. , & Hofmann , W. 2008 . Control me or I will control you: Impulse trait self-control, and the guidance of behavior . Manuscript submitted for publication .
   Google Scholar
• Friese , M. , Hofmann , W. , & Schmitt , M. 2008 . When and why do implicit reaction time measures predict behavior? Empirical evidence for the moderating role of motivation, opportunity, and process reliance . European Review of Social Psychology , 19 , 285 – 338 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friese , M. , Hofmann , W. , & Wänke , M. 2008 . When impulses take over: Moderated predictive validity of implicit and explicit attitude measures in predicting food choice and consumption behavior . British Journal of Social Psychology , 47 , 397 – 419 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gailliot , M. T. and Baumeister , R. F. 2006 . Self-regulation and sexual restraint: Dispositionally and temporarily poor self-regulatory abilities contribute to failures at restraining sexual behavior . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 33 : 173 – 186 .
   Google Scholar
• Gailliot , M. T. , Schmeichel , B. J. and Baumeister , R. F. 2006 . Self-regulatory processes defend against the threat of death: Effects of self-control depletion and trait self-control on thoughts and fears of dying . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 91 : 49 – 62 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gawronski , B. and Bodenhausen , G. V. 2006 . Associative and Propositional Processes in Evaluation: An Integrative Review of Implicit and Explicit Attitude Change . Psychological Bulletin , 132 : 692
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gibbons , F. X. , Gerrard , M. , Blanton , H. and Russell , D. W. 1998 . Reasoned action and social reaction: Willingness and intention as independent predictors of health risk . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 74 : 1164 – 1181 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gibbons , F. X. , Gerrard , M. and Lane , D. J. 2003 . “ A social reaction model of adolescent health risk ” . In Social Psychological Foundations of Health and Illness , Edited by: Suls , J. M. and Wallston , K. A. 107 – 136 . Oxford, , U.K. : Blackwell .
   Google Scholar
• Gilbert , D. T. and Hixon , J. G. 1991 . The trouble of thinking: Activation and application of stereotypic beliefs . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 60 : 509 – 517 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gollwitzer , P. M. and Sheeran , P. 2006 . “ Implementation intentions and goal achievement: A meta-analysis of effects and processes ” . In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology , Edited by: Zanna , M. P. Vol. 38 , 69 – 119 . San Diego, CA : Elsevier .
   Google Scholar
• Granö , N. , Virtanen , M. , Vaherta , J. , Elovainio , M. and Kivimäki , M. 2004 . Impulsivity as a predictor of smoking and alcohol consumption . Personality and Individual Differences , 37 : 1693 – 1700 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gray , J. A. 1982 . The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system . New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Greenberg , J. , Solomon , S. and Pyszczynski , T. 1997 . “ Terror management theory of self-esteem and social behavior: Empirical assessments and conceptual refinements ” . In Advances in experimental social psychology , Edited by: Zanna , M. P. Vol. 29 , 61 – 139 . New York : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Greenwald , A. G. , McGhee , D. E. and Schwartz , J. L. K. 1998 . Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 74 : 1464 – 1480 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grenard , J. L. , Ames , S. L. , Wiers , R. W. , Thush , C. , Sussman , S. , & Stacy , A. W. in press . Working memory moderates the predictive effects of drug-related associations on substance use . Psychology of Addictive Behaviors .
   Google Scholar
• Herman , C. P. , Polivy , J. , Lank , C. and Heatherton , T. F. 1987 . Anxiety, hunger and eating behavior . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 96 : 264 – 269 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hermsen , B. , Holland , R. W. , & van Knippenberg , A. 2006 . The happy act on impulse, the sad think twice: Mood as a moderator of the impact of implicit and explicit attitudes on behavior . Manuscript submitted for publication .
   Google Scholar
• Hofmann , W. , Friese , M. , & Gschwendner , T. in press . Men on the'pull': Automatic approach-avoidance tendencies and sexual interest behavior . Social Psychology .
   Google Scholar
• Hofmann , W. , Friese , M. , & Strack , F. 2009 . Impulse and self-control from a dual-systems perspective . Perspectives on Psychological Science , 4 , 162 – 176 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hofmann , W. , Gschwendner , T. , Friese , M. , Wiers , R. W. and Schmitt , M. 2008 . Working memory capacity and self-regulation: Toward an individual differences perspective on behavior determination by automatic versus controlled processes . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 95 : 962 – 977 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hofmann , W. , Rauch , W. and Gawronski , B. 2007 . And deplete us not into temptation: Automatic attitudes, dietary restraint, and self-regulatory resources as determinants of eating behavior . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 43 : 497 – 504 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hull , J. G. and Bond , C. F. 1986 . Social and behavioral consequences of alcohol consumption and expectancy: A meta-analysis . Psychological Bulletin , 99 : 347 – 360 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hull , J. G. and Slone , L. B. 2004 . “ Alcohol and self-regulation ” . In The handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications , Edited by: Baumeister , R. F. and Vohs , K. D. 466 – 491 . New York : Guilford .
   Google Scholar
• Ingjaldsson , J. T. , Thayer , J. F. and Laberg , J. C. 2003 . Craving for alcohol and pre-attentive processing of alcohol stimuli . International Journal of Psychophysiology , 49 : 29 – 39 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Irvin , J. E. , Bowers , C. A. , Dunn , M. E. and Wang , M. C. 1999 . Efficacy of relapse prevention: A meta-analytic review . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 67 : 563 – 570 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Isaac , D. 2008 . Potato chips . Available at: http://individual.utoronto.ca/daniel_isaac/potatochips.htm .
   Google Scholar
• Isen , A. M. , Johnson , M. M. S. , Mertz , E. and Robinson , G. F. 1985 . The influence of positive affect on the unusualness of word associations . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 48 : 1413 – 1426 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jansen , A. and van den Hout , M. 1991 . On being led into temptation: “Counterregulation” of dieters after smelling a “preload” . Addictive Behaviors , 16 : 247 – 253 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janz , N. K. and Becker , M. H. 1984 . The health belief model: A decade later . Health Education Quarterly , 11 : 1 – 47 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Karpinski , A. and Steinman , R. B. 2006 . The single category implicit association test as a measure of implicit social cognition . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 91 : 16 – 32 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keel , P. K. , Dorer , D. J. , Franko , D. L. , Jackson , S. C. and Herzog , D. B. 2005 . Postremission predictors of relapse in women with eating disorders . American Journal of Psychiatry , 162 : 2263 – 2268 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kiviniemi , M. T. , Voss-Humke , A. M. and Seifert , A. L. 2007 . How do I feel about the behavior? The interplay of affective associations with behaviors and cognitive beliefs as influences on physical activity behavior . Health Psychology , 26 : 152 – 158 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koob , G. F. and Le Moal , M. 2005 . Plasticity of reward neurocircuitry and the'dark side' of drug addiction . Nature Neuroscience , 8 : 1442 – 1444 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kruglanski , A. 1996 . “ Goals as knowledge structures ” . In The psychology of action , Edited by: Gollwitzer , P. M. and Bargh , J. A. 599 – 618 . New York : Guilford .
   Google Scholar
• Lascelles , K. R. R. , Field , A. P. and Davey , G. C. L. 2003 . Using foods as CSs and body shapes as UCSs: Selective conditioning effects during picture picture evaluative conditioning . Behavior Therapy , 34 : 213 – 235 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lattimore , P. and Maxwell , L. 2004 . Cognitive load, stress, and disinhibited eating . Eating Behaviors , 5 : 315 – 324 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lieberman , M. D. in press . The X- and C-sytems: The neural basis of reflexive and reflective social cognition . In E. Harmon-Jones & P. Winkelman Fundamentals of Social Neuroscience . New York : Guilford .
   Google Scholar
• Loewenstein , G. 1996 . Out of control: Visceral influences on behavior . Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes , 65 : 272
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loewenstein , G. , & O'Donoghue , T. 2004 . Animal spirits: Affective and deliberative processes in economic behavior : Working paper, Apr. 29, 2004 .
   Google Scholar
• MacDonald , T. K. , Fong , G. T. , Zanna , M. P. and Martineau , A. M. 2000 . Alcohol myopia and condom use: Can alcohol intoxication be associated with more prudent behavior? . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 78 : 605 – 619 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marlatt , G. and Gordon , J. 1985 . Relapse prevention: Maintenance strategies in the treatment of addictive behaviors , New York : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Marsh , K. L. , Johnson , B. T. and Scott-Sheldon , L. A. 2001 . Heart versus reason in condom use: implicit versus explicit attitudinal predictors of sexual behavior . Zeitschrift fuer Experimentelle Psychologie , 48 : 161 – 175 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Metcalfe , J. and Mischel , W. 1999 . A hot/cool system analysis of delay of gratification: Dynamics of willpower . Psychological Review , 106 : 3 – 19 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mierke , J. and Klauer , K. C. 2003 . Method-specific variance in the Implicit Association Test . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 85 : 1180 – 1192 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller , W. R. and Rollnick , S. 2002 . Motivational interviewing: Preparing people for change , 2nd ed , New York : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Mogg , K. , Bradley , B. P. , Field , M. and De Houwer , J. 2003 . Eye movements to smoking-related pictures in smokers: Relationship between attentional biases and implicit and explicit measures of stimulus valence . Addiction , 98 : 825 – 836 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monti , P. and Rohsenow , D. 1999 . Coping skills training and cue-exposure theory in the treatment of alcoholism . Alcohol Research and Health , 23 : 107 – 115 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muraven , M. and Baumeister , R. F. 2000 . Self-regulation and depletion of limited resources: Does self-control resemble a muscle? . Psychological Bulletin , 126 : 247 – 259 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muraven , M. , Collins , R. L. and Neinhaus , K. 2002 . Self-control and alcohol restraint: An initial application of the self-control strength model . Psychology of Addictive Behavior , 16 : 113 – 120 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muraven , M. , Shmueli , D. and Burkley , E. 2006 . Conserving self-control strength . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 91 : 524 – 537 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neumann , R. , Hülsenbeck , K. and Seibt , B. 2004 . Attitudes toward people with AIDS and avoidance behavior: Automatic and reflective bases of behavior . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 40 : 543 – 550 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Norman , D. A. and Shallice , T. 1986 . “ Attention to action. Willed and automatic control of behavior ” . In Consciousness and self regulation: Advances in research , Edited by: Davidson , R. J. , Schwartz , G. E. and Shapiro , D. 1 – 18 . New York : Plenum Press .
   Google Scholar
• Oaten , M. and Cheng , K. 2006 . Improved self-control: The benefits of a regular program of academic study . Basic and Applied Social Psychology , 28 : 1 – 16 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olson , M. A. and Fazio , R. H. 2004 . Reducing the influence of extrapersonal associations on the Implicit Association Test: personalizing the IAT . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 86 : 653 – 667 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ostafin , B. D. , Marlatt , G. A. and Greenwald , A. G. 2008 . Drinking without thinking: An implicit measure of alcohol motivation predicts failure to control alcohol use . Behavior Research and Therapy , 46 : 1210 – 1219 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Papies , E. , Stroebe , W. and Aarts , H. 2007 . Pleasure in the mind: restrained eating and spontaneous hedonic thoughts about food . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 43 : 810 – 817 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Payne , B. K. , Cheng , C. M. , Govorun , O. and Stewart , B. D. 2005 . An inkblot for attitudes: Affect misattribution as implicit measurement . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 89 : 277 – 293 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Payne , B. K. , Govorun , O. , & Arbuckle , N. L. 2008 . Automatic attitudes and alcohol: Does implicit liking predict drinking? Cognition and Emotion , 22, 238–271 .
   Google Scholar
• Payne , B. K. , McClernon , J. F. , & Dobbins , I. G. 2007 . Automatic affective responses to smoking cues . Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology , 15 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Petty , R. E. , Fazio , R. H. , & Briñol , P. 2008 . Attitudes: Insights from the new wave of implicit measures . New York : Psychology Press .
   Google Scholar
• Polivy , J. 1998 . The effects of behavioral inhibition: Integrating internal cues, cognition, behavior, and affect . Psychological Inquiry , 9 : 181 – 204 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prestwich , A. , Ayres , K. , Perugini , M. , & Conner , M. 2006 . Emotional eating moderates the relationship between implicit attitudes and the consumption of sweet foods . Unpublished manuscript .
   Google Scholar
• Prochaska , J. O. , DiClemente , C. C. and Norcross , J. C. 1992 . In search of how people change: Applications to addictive behaviors . American Psychologist , 47 : 1101 – 1114 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Puska , P. e. a. 1985 . The community-based strategy to prevent coronary heart-disease. Conclusions from the ten years of the North Karelia project . Annual Review of Public Health , 6 : 147 – 193 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robinson , T. E. and Berridge , K. C. 2003 . Addiction . Annual Review of Psychology , 54 : 25 – 53 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rogers , R. W. 1983 . “ Cognitive and physiological processes in fear appraisal and attitude change: A revised theory of protection motivation ” . In Social Psychophysiology , Edited by: Cacioppo , J. and Petty , R. New York : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Sayette , M. A. 2004 . “ Self-regulatory failure and addiction ” . In Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications , Edited by: Baumeister , R. F. and Vohs , K. D. 447 – 465 . New York : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Scarabis , M. , Florack , A. and Gosejohann , S. 2006 . When consumers follow their feelings: The impact of affective or cognitive focus on the basis of consumers’ choice . Psychology & Marketing , 23 : 1015 – 1034 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmukle , S. C. and Egloff , B. 2004 . Does the Implicit Association Test for assessing anxiety measure trait and state variance? . European Journal of Personality , 18 : 483 – 494 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schoenmakers , T. , Lux , I. , Goertz , A. , Van Kerkhof , D. , de Bruin , M. , & Wiers , R. W. 2008 . A randomized clinical trial to measure effects of an intervention to modify attentional bias in alcohol dependent patients . Manuscript submitted for publication .
   Google Scholar
• Schwarzer , R. 1992 . “ Self-efficacy in the adoption and maintenance of health behaviors: Theoretical approaches and a new model ” . In Self-efficacy: Thought control of action , Edited by: Schwarzer , I. R. 217 – 242 . Washington, DC : Hemisphere .
   Google Scholar
• Seibt , B. , Häfner , M. and Deutsch , R. 2007 . Prepared to eat: How immediate affective and motivational responses to food cues are influenced by food deprivation . European Journal of Social Psychology , 37 : 359 – 379 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shah , J. Y. , Friedman , R. S. and Kruglanski , A. W. 2002 . Forgetting all else: On the antecedents and consequences of goal shielding . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 83 : 1261 – 1280 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shiv , B. and Fedorikhin , A. 1999 . Heart and mind in conflict: The interplay of affect and cognition in consumer decision making . Journal of Consumer Research , 26 : 278
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sloman , S. A. 1996 . The empirical case for two systems of reasoning . Psychological Bulletin , 119 : 3 – 22 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith , E. C. and DeCoster , J. 2000 . Dual-process models in social and cognitive psychology: Conceptual integration and links to underlying memory systems . Personality and Social Psychology Review , 4 : 108 – 131 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stacy , A. W. 1997 . Memory activation and expectancy as prospective predictors of alcohol and marijuana use . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 106 : 61 – 73 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stacy , A. W. , Ames , S. L. and Grenard , J. 2006 . “ Word association tests of associative memory and implicit processes: theoretical and assessment issues ” . In Handbook of implicit cognition and addiction , Edited by: Wiers , R. W. and Stacy , A. W. 75 – 90 . Thousand Oaks, CA : SAGE .
   Google Scholar
• Steffens , M. C. 2004 . Is the Implicit Association Test immune to faking? . Experimental Psychology , 51 : 165 – 179 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strack , F. and Deutsch , R. 2004 . Reflective and impulsive determinants of social behavior . Personality and Social Psychology Review , 8 : 220 – 247 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stroebe , W. 2002 . bergewicht als Schicksal? Die kognitive Steuerung des Essverhaltens. [Overweight as fate? On the cognitive regulation of eating behavior] . Psychologische Rundschau , 53 : 14 – 22 .
   Google Scholar
• Stroebe , W. , Mensink , W. , Aarts , H. , Schut , H. and Kruglanski , A. 2008 . Why dieters fail: Testing the goal conflict model of eating . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 44 : 26 – 36 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tangney , J. P. , Baumeister , R. F. and Boone , A. L. 2004 . High self-control predicts good adjustment, less pathology, better grades, and interpersonal success . Journal of Personality , 72 : 271 – 324 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor , S. E. 2003 . Health psychology , 5th ed , New York : McGraw-Hill .
   Google Scholar
• Thush , C. , Wiers , R. W. , Ames , S. L. , Grenard , J. L. , Sussman , S. and Stacy , A. W. 2008 . Interactions between implicit and explicit cognition and working memory capacity in the prediction of alcohol use in at-risk adolescents . Drug and Alcohol Dependence , 94 : 116 – 124 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thush , C. , Wiers , R. W. , Moerbeek , M. , Ames , S. L. , Grenard , J. L. , Sussman , S. , et al. in press . The Influence of Motivational Interviewing on Explicit and Implicit Alcohol-Related Cognition and Alcohol Use in At-Risk Adolescents . Psychology of Addictive Behaviors .
   Google Scholar
• Tiffany , S. T. 1990 . A cognitive model of drug urges and drug-use behavior: Role of automatic and nonautomatic processes . Psychological Review , 97 : 147 – 168 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trope , Y. and Fishbach , A. 2000 . Counteractive self-control in overcoming tempation . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 79 : 493 – 506 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Strien , T. , Frijters , J. E. R. , Bergers , G. P. A. and Defares , P. B. 1986 . The Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (DEBQ) for assessment of restrained, emotional and external eating behaviour . International Journal of Eating Disorders , 5 : 295 – 315 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verdejo-Garcia , A. , Lawrence , A. J. and Clark , L. 2008 . Impulsivity as a vulnerability marker for substance-use disorders: Review of findings from high-risk research, problem gamblers and genetic association studies . Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews , 32 : 777 – 810 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verplanken , B. and Aarts , H. 1999 . Habit, attitude and planned behaviour: Is habit an empty construct or an interesting case of automaticity . European Review of Social Psychology , 10 : 101 – 134 .
   Google Scholar
• Verplanken , B. and Orbell , S. 2003 . Reflections on past behavior: A self-report index of habit strength . Journal of Applied Social Psychology , 33 : 1313 – 1330 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vohs , K. D. 2006 . Self-regulatory resources power the reflective system: Evidence from five domains . Journal of Consumer Psychology , 16 : 217 – 223 .
   Google Scholar
• Vohs , K. D. and Heatherton , T. F. 2000 . Self-regulatory failure: A resource-depletion approach . Psychological Science , 11 : 249 – 254 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waldeck , T. L. and Miller , L. S. 1997 . Gender and impulsivity differences in licit substance use . Journal of Substance Abuse , 9 : 269 – 275 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ward , A. and Mann , T. 2000 . Don't mind if I do: Disinhibited eating under cognitive load . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 78 : 753 – 763 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webb , T. L. and Sheeran , P. 2007 . How do implementation intentions promote goal attainment? A test of component processes . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 43 : 295 – 302 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weinstein , N. D. and Sandman , P. M. 1992 . A model of the precaution adoption process: Evidence from home radon testing . Health Psychology , 10 : 25 – 33 .
   Google Scholar
• Wiers , R. W. , Bartholow , B. D. , van den Wildenberg , E. , Thush , C. , Engels , R. C. M. E. Sher , K. J. 2007 . Automatic and controlled processes and the development of addictive behaviors in adolescents: A review and a model. Pharmacology . Biochemistry and Behavior , 86 : 263 – 283 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiers , R. W. , Beckers , L. , Houben , K. , & Hofmann , W. 2008 . A short fuse after alcohol: Implicit power associations predict aggressiveness after alcohol consumption in young heavy drinkers with limited executive control . Manuscript submitted for publication .
   Google Scholar
• Wiers , R. W. , Rinck , M. , Kordts , R. , Houben , K. , & Strack , F. 2008 . Re-training automatic action-tendencies to approach alcohol in hazardous drinkers . Manuscript submitted for publication .
   Google Scholar
• Wiers , R. W. , van Woerden , N. , Smulders , F. T. and de Jong , P. J. 2002 . Implicit and explicit alcohol-related cognitions in heavy and light drinkers . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 111 : 648 – 658 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson , T. D. and Schooler , J. W. 1991 . Thinking too much: Introspection can reduce the quality of preferences and decisions . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 60 : 181 – 191 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wittenbrink , B. , & Schwarz , N. 2007 . Implicit measures of attitudes: Procedures and controversies . New York : Guilford .
   Google Scholar
• Wolburg , J. M. , Hovland , R. and Hopson , R. E. 1999 . Cognitive restructuring as a relapse prevention strategy: Teaching alcoholic to talk back to beer ads . Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly , 17 : 29 – 51 .
   Google Scholar