Waiting is the hardest part: a model of uncertainty navigation in the context of health news

References

• Afifi , W.A. and Weiner , J.L. 2004 . Toward a theory of motivated information management . Communication Theory , 14 ( 2 ) : 167 – 190 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Armor , D.A. , Massey , B.C. and Sackett , A.M. 2008 . Prescribed optimism: Is it right to be wrong about the future? . Psychological Science , 19 : 329 – 331 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Armor , D.A. and Sackett , A.M. 2006 . Accuracy, error, and bias in predictions for real versus hypothetical events . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 91 : 583 – 600 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aspinwall , L.G. and Taylor , S.E. 1997 . A stitch in time: Self-regulation and proactive coping . Psychological Bulletin , 121 : 417 – 436 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bach , J.R. and Tilton , M.C. 1994 . Life satisfaction and well-being measures in ventilator assisted individuals with traumatic tetraplegia . Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation , 5 : 626 – 632 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baile , W.F. , Buckman , R. , Lenzi , R. , Glober , G. , Baile , E.A. and Kudelka , A.P. 2000 . SPIKES: A six-step protocol for delivering bad news . Oncologist , 5 : 302 – 311 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Behar , E. 2001 . Controllability and predictability in generalized anxiety disorder (Unpublished master's thesis). Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA .
   Google Scholar
• Bor , R. , Miller , R. , Goldman , E. and Scher , I. 1993 . The meaning of bad news in HIV disease: Counseling about dreaded issues revisited . Counseling Psychology Quarterly , 6 : 69 – 80 .
   Google Scholar
• Breetvett , I.S. and van Dam , F.S.A.M. 1991 . Underreporting by cancer patients: the case of response shift . Social Science and Medicine , 32 : 981 – 987 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bruininks , P. , & Sweeny , K. 2008 , February . Hope, optimism, and the temporal proximity of future outcomes . Poster presented at the annual conference of the Society of Personality and Social Psychology in Albuquerque, NM .
   Google Scholar
• Carroll , P.J. , Sweeny , K. and Shepperd , J.A. 2006 . Forsaking optimism . Review of General Psychology , 10 : 56 – 73 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carver , C.S. and Antoni , M.H. 2004 . Finding benefit in breast cancer during the year after diagnosis predicts better adjustment 5 to 8 years after diagnosis . Health Psychology , 23 ( 6 ) : 595 – 598 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Connolly , T. 1980 . “ Uncertainty, action, and competence: Some alternatives to omniscience in complex problem-solving ” . In Uncertainty: Behavioral and social dimensions , Edited by: Fiddle , S. 69 – 91 . New York : Praeger .
   Google Scholar
• Croyle , R.T. , Loftus , E.F. , Barger , S.D. , Sun , Y. , Hart , M. and Gettig , J. 2006 . How well do people recall risk factor test results? Accuracy and bias among cholesterol screening participants . Health Psychology , 25 : 425 – 432 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Croyle , R.T. , Sun , Y.C. and Louie , D.H. 1993 . Psychological minimization of cholesterol test results: Moderators of appraisal in college students and community residents . Health Psychology , 12 ( 6 ) : 503 – 507 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis , C.G. , Nolen-Hoeksema , S. and Larson , J. 1998 . Making sense of loss and benefiting from the experience: Two construals of meaning . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 75 ( 2 ) : 561 – 574 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dawson , E. , Savitsky , K. and Dunning , D. 2006 . “Don't tell me, I don't want to know”: Understanding people's reluctance to obtain medical diagnostic information . Journal of Applied Social Psychology , 36 : 751 – 768 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dijksterhuis , A. and Smith , P.K. 2002 . Affective habituation: Subliminal exposure to extreme stimuli decreases their extremity . Emotion , 2 ( 3 ) : 203 – 214 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DiLorenzo , T.A. , Schnur , J. , Montgomery , G.H. , Erblich , J. , Winkel , G. and Bovbjerg , D.H. 2006 . A model of disease-specific worry in heritable disease: The influence of family history, perceived risk and worry about other illnesses . Journal of Behavioral Medicine , 29 : 37 – 49 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dugas , M.J. , Gosselin , P. and Ladouceur , R. 2001 . Intolerance of uncertainty and worry: Investigating specificity in a non clinical sample . Cognitive Therapy and Research , 25 ( 5 ) : 551 – 558 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellis , P.M. and Tattersall , M.H.N. 1999 . How should doctors communicate the diagnosis of cancer to patients? . Annals of Medicine , 31 : 336 – 341 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellsberg , D. 1961 . Risk, ambiguity, and the savage axioms . Quarterly Journal of Economics , 75 ( 4 ) : 643 – 669 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fallowfield , L. and Jenkins , V. 2004 . Communicating sad, bad, and difficult news in medicine . Lancet , 363 : 312 – 319 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Faulkner , A. 1998 . ABC of palliative care: Communication with patients, families, and other professionals . British Medical Journal , 316 : 130 – 132 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feldman , G. and Hayes , A. 2004 . Preparing for problems: A measure of mental anticipatory processes . Journal of Research in Personality , 39 : 487 – 516 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Folkman , S. and Lazarus , R. 1980 . An analysis of coping in a middle-aged community sample . Journal of Health and Social Behavior , 21 : 219 – 239 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Folkman , S. and Lazarus , R.S. 1985 . If it changes it must be a process: A study of emotion and coping during three stages of a college examination . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 48 : 150 – 170 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frith , H. , Harcourt , D. and Fussell , A. 2007 . Anticipating an altered appearance: Women undergoing chemotherapy treatment for breast cancer . European Journal of Oncology Nursing , 11 : 385 – 391 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gamliel , T. 2000 . The lobby as an arena in the confrontation between acceptance and denial of old age . Journal of Aging Studies , 14 : 251 – 271 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilovich , T. 1991 . How we know what isn't so: The fallibility of human reason in everyday life , New York , NY : Free Press .
   Google Scholar
• Gilovich , T. , Kerr , M. and Medvec , V.H. 1993 . Effect of temporal perspective on subjective confidence . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 64 : 552 – 560 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greer , S. , Morris , T. , & Pettingale , K.W. 1979 . Psychological response to breast cancer: Effect on outcome . Lancet , 2 785 – 787 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Groopman , J. 2004 . The anatomy of hope: How people prevail in the face of illness , New York : Random House .
   Google Scholar
• Helzlsouer , K.J. , Ford , D.E. , Hayward , R.S.A. , Midzenski , M. , & Perry , H. 1994 . Perceived risk of cancer and practice of cancer prevention behaviors among employees in an oncology center . Preventive Medicine , 23 , 302 – 308 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hofstede , G. 2001 . Culture's consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations , Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Honda , K. and Neugut , A.I. 2004 . Association between perceived cancer risk and established risk factors in a national community sample . Cancer Detection and Prevention , 28 : 1 – 7 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Izard , C.E. 1991 . The psychology of emotions , New York : Plenum Press .
   Google Scholar
• Janoff-Bulman , R. and Frantz , C.M. 1997 . “ The impact of trauma on meaning: From meaningless world to meaningful life ” . In The Transformation of Meaning in Psychological Therapies: Integrating Theory and Practice , Edited by: Power , M. and Brewin , C. Sussex , England : Wiley & Sons .
   Google Scholar
• Kassarjian , H.H. and Cohen , J.B. 1965 . Cognitive dissonance and consumer behavior . California Management Review , 8 : 55 – 64 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kunda , Z. 1987 . Motivated inference: Self-serving generation and evaluation of causal theories . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 53 ( 4 ) : 636 – 647 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazarus , R.S. 1985 . “ The costs and benefits of denial ” . In Stress and coping , 2nd ed. , Edited by: Monat , A. and Lazarus , R.S. 154 – 173 . New York : Columbia University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Lerman , C. , Lustbader , E. , Rimer , B. , Daly , M. , Miller , S. , Sands , C. and Balshem , A. 1995 . Effects of individualized breast cancer risk counseling: A randomized trial . Journal of the National Cancer Institute , 87 : 286 – 292 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Littlewood , R.A. , Vanable , P.A. , Carey , M.P. and Blair , D.C. 2008 . The association of benefit finding to psychosocial and health behavior adaptation among HIV+ men and women . Journal of Behavioral Medicine , 31 ( 2 ) : 145 – 155 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loewenstein , G. 1994 . The psychology of curiosity: A review and reinterpretation . Psychological Bulletin , 116 : 75 – 98 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loge , J.H. , Kaasa , S. and Hytten , K. 1997 . Disclosing the cancer diagnosis: The patients’ experiences . European Journal of Cancer , 33 : 878 – 882 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mancini , A.D. and Bonanno , G.A. 2009 . Predictors and parameters of resilience to loss: Toward an individual differences model . Journal of Personality , 77 ( 6 ) : 1805 – 1832 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mandler , G. 1984 . Mind and body , New York : W.W. Norton .
   Google Scholar
• McCaul , K.D. , Branstetter , A.D. , Schroeder , D.M. and Glasgow , R.E. 1996 . What is the relationship between breast cancer risk and mammography screening? A meta-analytic review . Health Psychology , 15 : 423 – 429 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McQueen , A. , Vernon , S.W. , Meissner , H.I. and Rakowski , W. 2008 . Risk perceptions and worry about cancer: Does gender make a difference? . Journal of Health Communication , 13 ( 1 ) : 56 – 79 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller , S.M. 1987 . Monitoring and blunting: Validation of a questionnaire to assess styles of information seeking under threat . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 52 : 345 – 353 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller , S.M. 1995 . Monitoring versus blunting styles of coping with cancer influence the information patients want and need about their disease: Implications for cancer screening and management . Cancer , 76 : 167 – 177 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller , S.M. and Mangan , C.E. 1983 . The interacting effects of information and coping style in adapting to gynecoligic stress: Should the doctor tell all? . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 45 : 223 – 236 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morrell , S. , Barratt , A. , Irwig , L. , Howard , K. , Biesheuval , C. and Armstrong , B. 2010 . Estimates of overdiagnosis of invasive breast cancer associated with screening mammography . Cancer Causes and Control , 21 : 275 – 282 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muraven , M. and Baumeister , R. 2000 . Self-regulation and depletion of limited resources: Does self-control resemble a muscle? . Psychological Bulletin , 126 : 247 – 259 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nolen-Hoeksma , S. , Wisco , B.E. and Lyubomirsky , S. 2008 . Rethinking rumination . Perspectives on Psychological Science , 3 ( 5 ) : 400 – 424 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Norem , J.K. and Cantor , N. 1986 . Defensive pessimism: Harnessing anxiety and motivation . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 51 : 1208 – 1217 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olsen , O. and Gotzsche , P.C. 2001 . Cochrane review on screening for breast cancer with mammography . The Lancet , 358 : 1340 – 1342 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Omne-Pontén , M. , Holmberg , L. and Sjödén , P.O. 1994 . Psychosocial adjustment among women with breast cancer stages I and II: Six-year follow-up of consecutive patients . Journal of Clinical Oncology , 12 ( 9 ) : 1778 – 1782 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parsons , T. 1980 . “ Health, uncertainty, and the action situation ” . In Uncertainty: Behavioral and social dimensions , Edited by: Fiddle , S. 145 – 162 . New York : Praeger .
   Google Scholar
• Penrod , J. 2001 . Refinement of the concept of uncertainty . Journal of Advanced Nursing , 34 : 238 – 245 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Penrod , J. 2002 . Advancing the concept of uncertainty: Discerning and untangling related concepts . International Journal of Qualitative Methods , 1 : 32 – 43 .
   Google Scholar
• Penson , R.T. , Partridge , R.A. , Shah , M.A. , Giansiracusa , D. , Chabner , B.A. and Lynch , T.A. Jr . 2005 . Fear of death . The Oncologist , 10 : 160 – 169 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ptacek , J.T. and Ptacek , J.J. 2001 . Patients’ perceptions of receiving bad news about cancer . Journal of Clinical Oncology , 19 : 4160 – 4164 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quill , T.E. 1991 . Bad news: Delivery, dialogue, and dilemmas . Archive of Internal Medicine , 151 : 463 – 468 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rabow , M.W. and McPhee , S.J. 1999 . Beyond breaking bad news: How to help patients who suffer . Western Journal of Medicine , 171 : 260 – 263 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Radziewicz , R. and Baile , W.F. 2001 . Communication skills: Breaking bad news in the clinical setting . Oncology Nursing Forum , 28 : 951 – 953 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Reiman , E.M. , Fusselman , M.J. , Fox , P.T. and Raichle , M.E. 1989 . Neuroanatomical correlates of anticipatory anxiety . Science , 243 : 1071 – 1074 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richman , L.S. , Kubzansky , L. , Maselko , J. , Kawachi , I. , Choo , P. and Bauer , M. 2005 . Positive emotion and health: Going beyond the negative . Heath Psychology , 24 : 422 – 429 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts , C.S. , Cox , C.E. , Reintgen , C.S. , Baile , W.F. and Gibertini , M. 1994 . Influence of physician communication on newly diagnosed breast cancer patients’ psychologic adjustment and decision-making . Cancer , 74 : 336 – 341 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenberg , M. 1989 . Society and the adolescent self-image (Revised ed.) , Middletown , CT : Wesleyan University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Sanna , L.J. 1999 . Mental simulations, affect, and subjective confidence: Timing is everything . Psychological Science , 10 : 339 – 345 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Savitsky , K. , Medvec , V.H. , Charlton , A.E. and Gilovich , T. 1998 . “What, me worry?” Arousal, misattribution, and the effect of temporal distance on confidence . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 24 : 529 – 536 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scheier , M.F. , Carver , C.S. and Bridges , M.W. 1994 . Distinguishing optimism from neuroticism (and trait anxiety, self-mastery, and self-esteem): A re-evaluation of the life orientation test . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 67 : 1063 – 1078 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schnur , J.B. , DiLorenzo , T.A. , Montgomery , G.H. , Erblich , J. , Winkel , G. , Hall , S.J. and Bovbjerg , D.H. 2006 . Perceived risk and worry about prostate cancer: A proposed conceptual model . Behavioral Medicine , 32 ( 3 ) : 89 – 96 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwartz , C.E. , Bode , R. , Repucci , N. , Becker , J. , Sprangers , M.A.G. and Fayers , P.M. 2006 . The clinical significance of adaptation to changing health: A meta-analysis of response shift . Quality of Life Research , 15 ( 9 ) : 1533 – 1550 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwartz , C.E. , Sprangers , M.A.G. , Carey , A. and Reed , G. 2004 . Exploring response shift in longitudinal data . Psychology & Health , 19 ( 1 ) : 51 – 69 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Segerstrom , S. , Taylor , S. , Kemeny , M. and Fahey , J. 1998 . Optimism is associated with mood, coping and immune change in response to stress . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 74 ( 6 ) : 1646 – 1655 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shepperd , J.A. , Grace , J. , Cole , L.J. and Klein , C. 2005 . Anxiety and outcome predictions . Personality and Sociol Psychology Bulletin , 31 : 267 – 275 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shepperd , J.A. and McNulty , J. 2002 . The affective consequences of expected and unexpected outcomes . Psychological Science , 13 : 85 – 88 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shepperd , J.A. , Ouellette , J.A. and Fernandez , J.K. 1996 . Abandoning unrealistic optimism: Performance estimates and the temporal proximity of self-relevant feedback . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 70 : 844 – 855 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sorrentino , R. , & Short , J. 1986 . Uncertainty orientation, motivation, and cognition . E.T. Higgins R.M. Sorrentino Handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior 379 – 403 . New York , NY : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Sprangers , M.A.G. and Schwartz , C.E. 1999 . Integrating response shift into health-related quality-of-life research: A theoretical model . Social Science and Medicine , 48 : 1507 – 1515 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sweeny , K. , Dillard , A. , & Fox , A. 2010 . The bright side of unrealistic optimism and the dark side of bracing . Unpublished manuscript .
   Google Scholar
• Sweeny , K. and Shepperd , J.A. 2007 . Being the best bearer of bad tidings . Review of General Psychology , 11 : 235 – 257 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sweeny , K. , & Shepperd , J.A. in press . The costs of optimism and the benefits of pessimism . Emotion .
   Google Scholar
• Sweeny , K. , Shepperd , J.A. and Carroll , P.J. 2009 . Expectations for others’ outcomes . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 35 : 160 – 171 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor , S.E. , Pham , L.B. , Rivkin , I.D. and Armor , D.A. 1998 . Harnessing the imagination: Mental simulation, self-regulation, and coping . American Psychologist , 53 : 429 – 439 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor , K.M. and Shepperd , J.A. 1998 . Bracing for the worst: Severity, testing and feedback as moderators of the optimistic bias . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 24 : 915 – 926 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor , S. , Lichtman , R. and Wood , J. 1984 . Attributions, beliefs about control, and adjustment to breast cancer . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 46 ( 3 ) : 489 – 502 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker , A.E. 2007 . Multiple chronic diseases and quality of life: Patterns emerging from a large national sample, Australia . Chronic Illness , 3 : 202 – 218 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ward , J.E. , Hughes , A. , Hirst , G.H.L. and Winchester , L. 1997 . Men's estimates of prostate cancer risk and self-reported rates of screening . Medical Journal of Australia , 167 : 250 – 253 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webster , D.M. and Kruglanski , A.W. 1994 . Individual differences in need for cognitive closure . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 67 ( 6 ) : 1049 – 1062 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson , T.D. , Centerbar , D.B. , Kermer , D.A. and Gilbert , D.T. 2005 . The pleasures of uncertainty: Prolonging positive moods in ways people do not anticipate . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 88 : 5 – 21 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolf , J.E. , Hughes , A. , Hirst , G.H.L. and Winchester , L. 1997 . Predictors of interest in prostate specific antigen screening and the impact of informed consent: What should we tell our patients? . American Journal of Medicine , 103 : 308 – 314 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wortman , C.B. and Silver , R.C. 1989 . The myths of coping with loss . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 57 ( 3 ) : 349 – 357 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar