Mental contrasting with implementation intentions as a technique for media-mediated persuasive health communication

References

• Abroms, L. C., Padmanabhan, N., & Evans, W. D. (2012). Using mobile phones for health promotion. In S. M. Noar, & N. G. Harrington (Eds.), Ehealth applications: Promising strategies for behavior change (pp. 147–166). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Achtziger, A., Fehr, T., Oettingen, G., Gollwitzer, P. M., & Rockstroh, B. (2009). Strategies of intention formation are reflected in continuous MEG activity. Social Neuroscience, 4(1), 11–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470910801925350
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adriaanse, M. A., De Ridder, D. T. D., & Voorneman, I. (2013). Improving diabetes self-management by mental contrasting. Psychology & Health, 28(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2012.660154
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adriaanse, M. A., Oettingen, G., Gollwitzer, P. M., Hennes, E. P., de Ridder, D. T. D., & de Wit, J. B. F. (2010). When planning is not enough: Fighting unhealthy snacking habits by mental contrasting with implementation intentions (MCII). European Journal of Social Psychology, 40(7), 1277–1293. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.730
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adriaanse, M. A., & Verhoeven, A. (2018). Breaking habits using implementation intentions. In B. Verplanken (Hrsg.), The psychology of habit: Theory, mechanisms, change, and contexts (pp. 169–188). Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-97529-0_10.
   Google Scholar
• Allan, J. L., McMinn, D., & Daly, M. (2016). A bidirectional relationship between executive function and health behavior: Evidence, implications, and future directions. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 10(386), https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2016.00386
   Google Scholar
• Anikina, O. V., & Yakimenko, E. V. (2015). Edutainment as a modern technology of education. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 166, 475–479. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.12.558
   Google Scholar
• Armitage, C. J., & Arden, M. A. (2016). Enhancing the effectiveness of alcohol warning labels with a self-affirming implementation intention. Health Psychology, 35(10), 1159–1163. https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0000376
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Armitage, C. J., Harris, P. R., & Arden, M. A. (2011). Evidence that self-affirmation reduces alcohol consumption: Randomized exploratory trial with a new, brief means of self-affirming. Health Psychology, 30(5), 633–641. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023738
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Armitage, C. J., Rowe, R., Arden, M. A., & Harris, P. R. (2014). A brief psychological intervention that reduces adolescent alcohol consumption. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 82(3), 546–550. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035802
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aspinwall, L. G., & Brunhart, S. M. (1996). Distinguishing optimism from denial: Optimistic beliefs predict attention to health threats. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22(10), 993–1003. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672962210002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bayer, U. C., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2007). Boosting scholastic test scores by willpower: The role of implementation intentions. Self and Identity, 6(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860600662056
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beehler, G. P., Rodrigues, A. E., Kay, M. A., Kiviniemi, M. T., & Steinbrenner, L. (2014). Perceptions of barriers and facilitators to health behavior change among veteran cancer survivors. Military Medicine, 179(9), 998–1005. https://doi.org/10.7205/MILMED-D-14-00027
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bilandzic, H., & Busselle, R. (2013). Narrative persuasion. In J. P. Dillard & L. Shen (Eds.), The sage handbook of persuasion: Developments in theory and practice (pp. 200–219). Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Birnbaum, M. L., Garrett, C., Baumel, A., Scovel, M., Rizvi, A. F., Muscat, W., & Kane, J. M. (2017). Using digital media advertising in early psychosis intervention. Psychiatric Services, 68(1), 1144–1149. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.201600571
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Borrelli, B., & Ritterband, L. M. (2015). Ehealth and mHealth: Challenges and future directions for assessment, treatment, and dissemination [Special issue]. Psychology & Health, 34(Suppl), 1205–1208. https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0000323
   Google Scholar
• Bradbury, D., Upsher, R., & Chilcot, J. (2016). A pilot randomised test of a self-affirmation implementation intention intervention to reduce dietary salt intake. Journal of Health Psychology, 23(6), 765–775. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105316650511
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brehm, J. W. (1966). A theory of psychological reactance. Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Brehm, J. W., & Self, E. A. (1989). The intensity of motivation. Annual Review of Psychology, 40(1), 109–131. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ps.40.020189.000545
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, B., Crawford, P., & Carter, R. (2006). Evidence-based health communication. Open University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Chou, W.-Y. S., Prestin, A., Lyons, C., & Wen, K.-Y. (2012). Web 2.0 for health promotion: Reviewing the current evidence. American Journal of Public Health, 103(1), e9–e18. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2012.301071
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Christiansen, S., Oettingen, G., Dahme, B., & Klinger, R. (2010). A short goal-pursuit intervention to improve physical capacity: A randomized clinical trial in chronic back pain patients. Pain, 149(3), 444–452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pain.2009.12.015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cin, D., Zanna, S., & Fong, M. P., & T, G. (2004). Narrative persuasion and overcoming resistance. In E. S. Knowles & J. A. Linn (Eds.), Resistance and persuasion (pp. 175–191). Lawrence Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Cross, A., & Sheffield, D. (2019). Mental contrasting for health behaviour change: A systematic review and meta-analysis of effects and moderator variables. Health Psychology Review, 13(2), 209–225. https://doi.org/10.1080/17437199.2019.1594332
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davies, K., Armitage, C. J., Lin, Y.-L., Munro, J., Walsh, T., & Callery, P. (2017). Development of an implementation intention-based intervention to change children’s and parent-carers’ behaviour. Pilot and Feasibility Studies, 4(20), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40814-017-0171-6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• de Cock, N., Van Lippevelde, W., Goossens, L., De Clercq, B., Vangeel, J., Lachat, C., Beullens, K., Huybregts, L., Vervoort, L., Eggermont, S., Maes, L., Braet, C., Deforche, B., Kolsteren, P., & Van Camp, J. (2016). Sensitivity to reward and adolescents’ unhealthy snacking and drinking behavior: The role of hedonic eating styles and availability. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 13(17), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-016-0341-6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• de Wit, J. B. F., Das, E., & Vet, R. (2008). What works best: Objective statistics or a personal testimonial? An assessment of the persuasive effects of different types of message evidence on risk perception. Health Psychology, 27(1), 110–115. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.27.1.110
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diefenbach, M. A., Miller, S. M., Porter, M., Peters, E., Stefanek, M., & Leventhal, H. (2008). Emotions and health behavior: A self-regulation perspective. In M. Lewis, J. M. Haviland-Jones, & L. Feldman Barrett (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (3rd ed., pp. 645–660). Guilford.
   Google Scholar
• Dillard, J. P., Li, R., & Huang, Y. (2017). Threat appeals: The fear–persuasion relationship is linear and curvilinear. Health Communication, 32(11), 1358–1367. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2016.1220345
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dillard, J. P., & Shen, L. (2005). On the nature of reactance and its role in persuasive health communication. Communication Monographs, 72(2), 144–168. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637750500111815
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duckworth, A. L., Grant, H., Loew, B., Oettingen, G., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2011). Self-regulation strategies improve self-discipline in adolescents: Benefits of mental contrasting and implementation intentions. Educational Psychology, 31(1), 17–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2010.506003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Earl, A., & Albarracín, D. (2007). Nature, decay, and spiraling of the effects of fear-inducing arguments and HIV counseling and testing: A meta-analysis of the short- and long-term outcomes of HIV-prevention interventions. Health Psychology, 26(4), 496–506. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.26.4.496
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elliot, A. J. (2006). The hierarchical model of approach-avoidance motivation. Motivation and Emotion, 30(2), 111–116. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-006-9028-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elliot, A. J., & Covington, M. V. (2001). Approach and avoidance motivation. Educational Psychology Review, 13(2), 73–92. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009009018235
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. The American Psychologist, 56(3), 218–226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fredrickson, B. L. (2013). Positive emotions broaden and build. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 47(1), 1–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-407236-7.00001-2
   Google Scholar
• Fredrickson, B. L., & Branigan, C. (2005). Positive emotions broaden the scope of attention and thought-action repertoires. Cognition and Emotion, 19(3), 313–332. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930441000238
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freimuth, V. S., Hammond, S. L., Edgar, T., & Monahan, J. L. (1990). Reaching those at risk. Communication Research, 17(6), 775–791. https://doi.org/10.1177/009365029001700604
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gollwitzer, P. M. (1993). Goal Achievement: The Role of Intentions. European Review of Social Psychology, 4(1), 141–185. https://doi.org/10.1080/14792779343000059
   Google Scholar
• Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54(7), 493–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gollwitzer, P. M., & Brandstätter, V. (1997). Implementation intentions and effective goal pursuit. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(1), 186–199. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.1.186
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heckhausen, H. (1977). Achievement motivation and its constructs: A cognitive model. Motivation and Emotion, 1(4), 283–329. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00992538
   Google Scholar
• Hinyard, L. J., & Kreuter, M. W. (2007). Using narrative communication as a tool for health behavior change: A conceptual, theoretical, and empirical overview. Health Education & Behavior, 34(5), 777–792. https://doi.org/10.1177/1090198106291963
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johannessen, K. B., Oettingen, G., & Mayer, D. (2012). Mental contrasting of a dieting wish improves self-reported health behaviour. Psychology & Health, 27(sup2), 43–58. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2011.626038
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joosten, E. A. G., DeFuentes-Merillas, L., de Weert, G. H., Sensky, T., van der Staak, C. P. F., & de Jong, C. A. J. (2008). Systematic review of the effects of shared decision-making on patient satisfaction, treatment adherence and health status. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 77(4), 219–226. https://doi.org/10.1159/000126073
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kappes, A., & Oettingen, G. (2014). The emergence of goal pursuit: Mental contrasting connects future and reality. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 54, 25–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2014.03.014
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kappes, A., Oettingen, G., & Pak, H. (2012a). Mental contrasting and the self-regulation of responding to negative feedback. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38(7), 845–857. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167212446833
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kappes, A., Singmann, H., & Oettingen, G. (2012b). Mental contrasting instigates goal pursuit by linking obstacles of reality with instrumental behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(4), 811–818. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2012.02.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kappes, H. B., & Oettingen, G. (2011). Positive fantasies about idealized futures sap energy. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47(4), 719–729. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2011.02.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kappes, H. B., Sharma, E., & Oettingen, G. (2013). Positive fantasies dampen charitable giving when many resources are demanded. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 23(1), 128–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcps.2012.02.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knowles, E. S., & Linn, J. A. (2004). Resistance and persuasion. Lawrence Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Kok, G., Peters, G.-J. Y., Kessels, L. T. E., ten Hoor, G. A., & Ruiter, R. A. C. (2017). Ignoring theory and misinterpreting evidence: The false belief in fear appeals. Health Psychology Review, 12(2), 111–125. https://doi.org/10.1080/17437199.2017.1415767
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kreuter, M. W., Green, M. C., Cappella, J. N., Slater, M. D., Wise, M. E., Storey, D., Clark, E. M., O’Keefe, D. J., Erwin, D. O., Holmes, K., Hinyard L. J., Houston, T., & Woolley, S. (2007). Narrative communication in cancer prevention and control: A framework to guide research and application. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 33(3), 221–235. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02879904
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kreuter, M. W., Holmes, K., Alcaraz, K., Kalesan, B., Rath, S., Richert, M., McQueen, A., Caito, N., Robinson L., & Clark, E. M. (2010). Comparing narrative and informational videos to increase mammography in low-income African American women. Patient Education and Counseling, 81, S6–S14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pec.2010.09.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kreuter, M. W., & Wray, R. J. (2003). Tailored and targeted health communication: Strategies for enhancing information relevance. American Journal of Health Behavior, 27(1), S227–S232. https://doi.org/10.5993/AJHB.27.1.s3.6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leventhal, H. (1970). Findings and theory in the study of fear communications. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 5, pp. 119–186). Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Leventhal, H. (1971). Fear appeals and persuasion: Differentiation of a motivational construct. American Journal of Public Health and the Nations Health, 61(6), 1208–1224. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.61.6.1208
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marquardt, M. K., Oettingen, G., Gollwitzer, P. M., Sheeran, P., & Liepert, J. (2017). Mental contrasting with implementation intentions (MCII) improves physical activity and weight loss among stroke survivors over one year. Rehabilitation Psychology, 62(4), 580–590. https://doi.org/10.1037/rep0000104
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell Turner, M. (2012). Using emotional appeals in health messages. In H. Cho (Ed.), Health communication message design (pp. 59–93). Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Monahan, J. L. (1995). Thinking positively: Using positive affect when designing health messages. In E. Maibach & R. L. Parrott (Eds.), Designing health messages (pp. 81–98). Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Mongeau, P. A. (1998). Another look at fear-arousing persuasive appeals. In M. Allen & R. W. Preiss (Eds.), Persuasion: Advances through meta-analysis (pp. 53–68). Hampton.
   Google Scholar
• Moyer-Gusé, E. (2008). Toward a theory of entertainment persuasion: Explaining the persuasive effects of entertainment-education messages. Communication Theory, 18(3), 407–425. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2885.2008.00328.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moyer-Gusé, E., & Nabi, R. L. (2010). Explaining the effects of narrative in an entertainment television program: Overcoming resistance to persuasion. Human Communication Research, 36(1), 26–52. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2009.01367.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mutter, E. R., Oettingen, G., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2020). An online randomised controlled trial of mental contrasting with implementation intentions as a smoking behaviour change intervention. Psychology & Health, 35(3), 318–345. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2019.1634200
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nabi, R. L. (2015). Emotional flow in persuasive health messages. Health Communication, 30(2), 114–124. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2014.974129
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nabi, R. L., Pérez Torres, D., & Prestin, A. (2017). Guilty pleasure no more. Journal of Media Psychology, 29(3), 126–136. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-1105/a000223
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nagelhout, G. E., Hogeling, L., Spruijt, R., Postma, N., & de Vries, H. (2017). Barriers and facilitators for health behavior change among adults from multi-problem households: A qualitative study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(10), 1229. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14101229
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nambisan, P., & Nambisan, S. (2009). Models of consumer value co-creation in health care. Health Care Management Review, 34(4), 344–354. https://doi.org/10.1097/HMR.0b013e3181abd528
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niederdeppe, J., Shapiro, M. A., & Porticella, N. (2011). Attributions of responsibility for obesity: Narrative communication reduces reactive counterarguing among liberals. Human Communication Research, 37(3), 295–323. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2011.01409.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noar, S. M., Hall, M. G., Francis, D. B., Ribisl, K. M., Pepper, J. K., & Brewer, N. T. (2015). Pictorial cigarette pack warnings: A meta-analysis of experimental studies. Tobacco Control, 25(3), 341–354. https://doi.org/10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2014-051978
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oettingen, G. (1996). Positive fantasy and motivation. In P. M. Gollwitzer & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), The psychology of action: Linking cognition and motivation to behavior (pp. 236–259). Guilford.
   Google Scholar
• Oettingen, G. (1999). Free fantasies about the future and the emergence of developmental goals. In J. Brandstätter & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Action and self-development: Theory and research through the life span (pp. 315–342). Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Oettingen, G. (2012). Future thought and behavior change. European Review of Social Psychology, 23(1), 1–63. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2011.643698
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oettingen, G., & Cachia, J. Y. A. (2016). Problems with positive thinking and how to overcome them. In R. F. Baumeister & K. D. Vohs (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications (3rd ed., pp. 547–570). Guilford.
   Google Scholar
• Oettingen, G., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2010). Strategies of setting and implementing goals: Mental contrasting and implementation intentions. In J. E. Maddux & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), Social psychological foundations of clinical psychology (pp. 114–135). Guilford.
   Google Scholar
• Oettingen, G., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2018). Health behavior change by self-regulation of goal pursuit: Mental contrasting with implementation intentions. In D. T. D. De Ridder, M. A. Adriaanse, & K. Fujita (Eds.), The Routledge international handbook of self-control in health and well-being (pp. 418–430). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Oettingen, G., Hönig, G., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2000). Effective self-regulation of goal attainment. International Journal of Educational Research, 33(7), 705–732. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-0355(00)00046-X
   Google Scholar
• Oettingen, G., & Mayer, D. (2002). The motivating function of thinking about the future: Expectations versus fantasies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(5), 1198–1212. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.83.5.1198
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oettingen, G., Mayer, D., & Brinkmann, B. (2010a). Mental contrasting of future and reality. Journal of Personnel Psychology, 9(3), 138–144. https://doi.org/10.1027/1866-5888/a000018
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oettingen, G., Mayer, D., Sevincer, A. T., Stephens, E. J., Pak, H. J., & Hagenah, M. (2009). Mental contrasting and goal commitment: The mediating role of energization. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35(5), 608–622. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167208330856
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oettingen, G., Mayer, D., & Thorpe, J. (2010b). Self-regulation of commitment to reduce cigarette consumption: Mental contrasting of future with reality. Psychology & Health, 25(8), 961–977. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870440903079448
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oettingen, G., Pak, H.-J., & Schnetter, K. (2001). Self-regulation of goal-setting: Turning free fantasies about the future into binding goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(5), 736–753. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.80.5.736
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oettingen, G., & Wadden, T. (1991). Expectation, fantasy, and weight loss: Is the impact of positive thinking always positive? Cognitive Therapy and Research, 15(2), 167–175. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01173206
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ohlheiser, A. (2016, July 27). The ALS ‘Ice Bucket Challenge’ is working. Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-intersect/wp/2016/07/27/the-als-ice-bucket-challenge-is-working/.
   Google Scholar
• Orbell, S., Hodgkins, S., & Sheeran, P. (1997). Implementation intentions and the theory of planned behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23(9), 945–954. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167297239004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ort, A., & Fahr, A. (2018). Using efficacy cues in persuasive health communication is more effective than employing threats – An experimental study of a vaccination intervention against Ebola. British Journal of Health Psychology, 23(3), 665–684. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12310
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ort, A., & Fahr, A. (2020). Negatively valenced PSA against sexually transmitted diseases – evidence from an experimental study. SCM Studies in Communication and Media, 9(3), 341–366. https://doi.org/10.5771/2192-4007-2020-3-341
   Google Scholar
• Parcel, G. S., Simons Morton, B. G., O'Hara, N. M., Baranowski, T., Kolbe, L. J., & Bee, D. E. (1987). School promotion of healthful diet and exercise behavior: An integration of organizational change and social learning theory interventions. Journal of School Health, 57(4), 150–156. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.1987.tb04163.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peters, G.-J. Y., Ruiter, R. A., & Kok, G. (2013). Threatening communication: A critical re-analysis and a revised meta-analytic test of fear appeal theory. Health Psychology Review, 7(Supp. 1), S8–S31. https://doi.org/10.1080/17437199.2012.703527
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Petty, R. E., & Briñol, P. (2008). Persuasion: From single to multiple to metacognitive processes. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3(2), 137–147. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6916.2008.00071.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pressman, S. D., & Cohen, S. (2005). Does positive affect influence health? Psychological Bulletin, 131(6), 925–971. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.131.6.925
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prochaska, J. O., & DiClemente, C. C. (1983). Stages and processes of self-change of smoking: Toward an integrative model of change. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51(3), 390–395. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.51.3.390
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reed, M. B., & Aspinwall, L. G. (1998). Self-affirmation reduces biased processing of health-risk information. Motivation and Emotion, 22(2), 99–132. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021463221281
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rhodes, R. E., & de Bruijn, G.-J. (2013). How big is the physical activity intention–behaviour gap? A meta-analysis using the action control framework. British Journal of Health Psychology, 18(2), 296–309. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12032
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rice, R. E., & Atkin, C. K. (2012). Public communication campaigns (4th ed). Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Rogers, R. W. (1975). A protection motivation theory of fear appeals and attitude change. Journal of Psychology, 91(1), 93–114. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.1975.9915803
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruiter, R. A. C., Kessels, L. T. E., Peters, G.-J. Y., & Kok, G. (2014). Sixty years of fear appeal research: Current state of the evidence. International Journal of Psychology, 49(2), 63–70. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijop.12042
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sailer, P., Wieber, F., Pröpster, K., Stoewer, S., Nischk, D., Volk, F., & Odenwald, M. (2015). A brief intervention to improve exercising in patients with schizophrenia: A controlled pilot study with mental contrasting and implementation intentions (MCII). BMC Psychiatry, 15(1), 211. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-015-0513-y
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schiavo, R. (2013). Health communication: From theory to practice. Jossey-Bass.
   Google Scholar
• Schwarzer, R. (2008). Modeling health behavior change: How to predict and modify the adoption and maintenance of health behaviors. Applied Psychology, 57(1), 1–29. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.2007.00325.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sevincer, A. T., & Oettingen, G. (2013). Spontaneous mental contrasting and selective goal pursuit. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39(9), 1240–1254. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167213492428
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sevincer, A. T., & Oettingen, G. (2015). Future thought and the self-regulation of energization. In G. H. E. Gendolla, M. Tops, & S. L. Koole (Eds.), Handbook of biobehavioral approaches to self-regulation (pp. 315–329). Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Sheeran, P. (2002). Intention—behavior relations: A conceptual and empirical review. European Review of Social Psychology, 12(1), 1–36. https://doi.org/10.1080/14792772143000003
   Google Scholar
• Sheeran, P., Harris, P., Vaughan, J., Oettingen, G., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2013). Gone exercising: Mental contrasting promotes physical activity among overweight, middle-aged, low-SES fishermen. Health Psychology, 32(7), 802–809. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029293
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sheeran, P., & Orbell, S. (1999). Implementation intentions and repeated behaviour: Augmenting the predictive validity of the theory of planned behaviour. European Journal of Social Psychology, 29(23), 349–369. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0992(199903/05)29:2/3<349::AID-EJSP931>3.0.CO;2-Y
   Google Scholar
• Sheeran, P., & Orbell, S. (2000). Using implementation intentions to increase attendance for cervical cancer screening. Health Psychology, 19(3), 283–289. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.19.3.283
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sheeran, P., Webb, T. L., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2005). The interplay between goal intentions and implementation intentions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(1), 87–98. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167204271308
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shen, F., Sheer, V. C., & Li, R. (2015). Impact of narratives on persuasion in health communication: A meta-analysis. Journal of Advertising, 44(2), 105–113. https://doi.org/10.1080/00913367.2015.1018467
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shen, L. (2017). Putting the fear back again (and within individuals): Revisiting the role of fear in persuasion. Health Communication, 32(11), 1331–1341. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2016.1220043
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shen, L., & Dillard, J. P. (2014). Threat, fear, and persuasion: Review and critique of questions about functional form. Review of Communication Research, 2, 94–114. https://doi.org/10.12840/issn.2255-4165.2014.02.01.004
   Google Scholar
• Sherman, D. K., Mann, T., & Updegraff, J. A. (2006). Approach/avoidance motivation, message framing, and health behavior: Understanding the congruency effect. Motivation and Emotion, 30(2), 164–168. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-006-9001-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stadler, G., Oettingen, G., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2009). Physical activity in women: Effects of a self-regulation intervention. American Journal of Preventive Medecine, 36(1), 29–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2008.09.021
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stadler, G., Oettingen, G., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2010). Intervention effects of information and self-regulation on eating fruits and vegetables over two years. Health Psychology, 29(3), 274–283. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018644
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steele, C. M. (1988). The psychology of self-affirmation: Sustaining the integrity of the self. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 21, pp. 261–302). Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Tannenbaum, M. B., Hepler, J., Zimmerman, R. S., Saul, L., Jacobs, S., Wilson, K., & Albarracín, D. (2015). Appealing to fear: A meta-analysis of fear appeal effectiveness and theories. Psychological Bulletin, 141(6), 1178–1204. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039729
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tapper, K., Baker, L., Jiga-Boy, G., Haddock, G., & Maio, G. R. (2015). Sensitivity to reward and punishment: Associations with diet, alcohol consumption, and smoking. Personality and Individual Differences, 72, 79–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.08.025
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van den Heerik, R. A. M., van Hooijdonk, C. M. J., Burgers, C., & Steen, G. J. (2017). “Smoking is sóóó … sandals and white socks”: Co-creation of a Dutch anti-smoking campaign to change social norms. Health Communication, 32(5), 621–628. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2016.1168000
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verplanken, B., & Faes, S. (1999). Good intentions, bad habits, and effects of forming implementation intentions on healthy eating. European Journal of Social Psychology, 29(5–6), 591–604. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0992(199908/09)29:5/6<591::AID-EJSP948>3.0.CO;2-H
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vilà, I., Carrero, I., & Redondo, R. (2017). Reducing fat intake using implementation intentions: A meta-analytic review. British Journal of Health Psychology, 22, 281–294. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12230
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weinstein, N. D., & Sandman, P. M. (1992). A model of the precaution adoption process: Evidence from home radon testing. Health Psychology, 11(3), 170–180. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.11.3.170
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilton, T. (2000). Sexualities in health and social care. Open University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Witte, K. (1992). Putting the fear back into fear appeals: The extended parallel process model. Communications Monographs, 59(4), 329–349. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637759209376276
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witte, K., & Allen, M. (2000). A meta-analysis of fear appeals: Implications for effective public health campaigns. Health Education & Behavior, 27(5), 591–615. https://doi.org/10.1177/109019810002700506
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wittleder, S., Kappes, A., Oettingen, G., Gollwitzer, P. M., Jay, M., & Morgenstern, J. (2019). Mental contrasting with implementation intentions reduces drinking when drinking is hazardous: An online self-regulation intervention. Health Education & Behavior, 46(4), 666–676. https://doi.org/10.1177/1090198119826284
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar