Self-compassion, a better alternative to rumination than distraction as a response to negative mood

References

• Blatt, S. J., D’Afflitti, J., & Quinlan, D. (1976). Experiences of depression in normal young adults. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 85, 383–389. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.85.4.38310.1037/0021-843X.85.4.383
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brinker, J. K., & Dozois, D. J. (2009). Ruminative thought style and depressed mood. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65, 1–19. doi:10.1002/jclp.2054210.1002/jclp.v65:1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Broderick, P. C. (2005). Mindfulness and coping with dysphoric mood: Contrasts with rumination and distraction. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 29, 501–510. doi:10.1007/s10608-005-3888-010.1007/s10608-005-3888-0
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cummins, R. A., Eckersley, R., Pallant, J., van Vugt, J., & Misajon, R. (2003). Developing a national index of subjective wellbeing: The Australian unity wellbeing index. Social Indicators Research, 64, 159–190. doi:10.1023/A:102470432068310.1023/A:1024704320683
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diener, E., Lucas, R. E., & Scollon, C. N. (2006). Beyond the hedonic treadmill: Revising the adaptation theory of well-being. American Psychologist, 61, 305–314. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.61.4.30510.1037/0003-066X.61.4.305
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donaldson, C., Lam, D., & Mathews, A. (2007). Rumination and attention in major depression. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 2664–2678. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2007.07.00210.1016/j.brat.2007.07.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fredrickson, B. L. (1998). What good are positive emotions? Review of General Psychology, 2, 300–319. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.30010.1037/1089-2680.2.3.300
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56, 218–226. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.21810.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fredrickson, B. L., & Branigan, C. (2005). Positive emotions broaden the scope of attention and thought-action repertoires. Cognition and Emotion, 19, 313–332. doi:10.1080/0269993044100023810.1080/02699930441000238
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fredrickson, B. L., Cohn, M. A., Coffey, K. A., Pek, J., & Finkel, S. M. (2008). Open hearts build lives: Positive emotions, induced through loving-kindness meditation, build consequential personal resources. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 1045–1062. doi:10.1037/a001326210.1037/a0013262
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilbert, P. (2010). Compassion focused therapy: Distinctive features. New York, NY: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.
   Google Scholar
• Gilbert, P., & Procter, S. (2006). Compassionate mind training for people with high shame and self-criticism: Overview and pilot study of a group therapy approach. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 13, 353–379. doi:10.1002/cpp.507
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K. D., & Wilson, K. G. (1999). Acceptance and commitment therapy: An experiential approach to behavior change. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hilt, L. M., Armstrong, J. M., & Essex, M. J. (2012). Early family context and development of adolescent ruminative style: Moderation by temperament. Cognition and Emotion, 26, 916–926. doi:10.1080/02699931.2011.62193210.1080/02699931.2011.621932
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holahan, C. J., Moos, R. H., Holahan, C. K., Brennan, P. L., & Schutte, K. K. (2005). Stress generation, avoidance coping, and depressive symptoms: A 10-year model. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 658–666. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.73.4.65810.1037/0022-006X.73.4.658
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huffziger, S., & Kuehner, C. (2009). Rumination, distraction, and mindful self-focus in depressed patients. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47, 224–230. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2008.12.00510.1016/j.brat.2008.12.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huffziger, S., Reinhard, I., & Kuehner, C. (2009). A longitudinal study of rumination and distraction in formerly depressed inpatients and community controls. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118, 746–756. doi:10.1037/a001694610.1037/a0016946
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jennings, P. D., McGinnis, D., Lovejoy, S., & Stirling, J. (2000). Valence and arousal ratings for Velten mood induction statements. Motivation and Emotion, 24, 285–297. doi:10.1023/A:101074501686810.1023/A:1010745016868
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Just, N., & Alloy, L. B. (1997). The response styles theory of depression: Tests and an extension of the theory. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 221–229. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.106.2.22110.1037/0021-843X.106.2.221
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kingston, T., Dooley, B., Bates, A., Lawlor, E., & Malone, K. (2007). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for residual depressive symptoms. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 80, 193–203. doi:10.1348/147608306X11601610.1348/147608306X116016
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knowles, R., Tai, S., Christensen, I., & Bentall, R. (2005). Coping with depression and vulnerability to mania: A factor analytic study of the Nolen-Hoeksema (1991) Response Styles Questionnaire. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 44, 99–112. doi:10.1348/014466504X2006210.1348/014466504X20062
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krieger, T., Altenstein, D., Baettig, I., Doerig, N., & Holtforth, M. G. (2013). Self-compassion in depression: Associations with depressive symptoms, rumination, and avoidance in depressed outpatients. Behavior Therapy, 44, 501–513. doi:10.1016/j.beth.2013.04.00410.1016/j.beth.2013.04.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kross, E., & Ayduk, O. (2008). Facilitating adaptive emotional analysis: Distinguishing distanced-analysis of depressive experiences from immersed-analysis and distraction. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 924–938. doi:10.1177/014616720831593810.1177/0146167208315938
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuehner, C., Holzhauer, S., & Huffziger, S. (2007). Decreased cortisol response to awakening is associated with cognitive vulnerability to depression in a nonclinical sample of young adults. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 32, 199–209. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2006.12.00710.1016/j.psyneuen.2006.12.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuehner, C., Huffziger, S., & Liebsch, K. (2009). Rumination, distraction and mindful self-focus: Effects on mood, dysfunctional attitudes and cortisol stress response. Psychological Medicine, 39, 219–228. doi:10.1017/S003329170800355310.1017/S0033291708003553
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laithwaite, H., O’Hanlon, M., Collins, P., Doyle, P., Abraham, L., Porter, S., & Gumley, A. (2009). Recovery after psychosis (RAP): A compassion focused programme for individuals residing in high security settings. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 37, 511–526. doi:10.1017/S135246580999023310.1017/S1352465809990233
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lavender, A., & Watkins, E. (2004). Rumination and future thinking in depression. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 43, 129–142. doi:10.1348/01446650432308801510.1348/014466504323088015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leary, M. R., Tate, E. B., Adams, C. E., Batts Allen, A., & Hancock, J. (2007). Self-compassion and reactions to unpleasant self-relevant events: The implications of treating oneself kindly. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 887–904. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.5.88710.1037/0022-3514.92.5.887
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, R. M., & Robbins, S. B. (1995). Measuring belongingness: The social connectedness and social assurance scales. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 42, 232–241. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.42.2.23210.1037/0022-0167.42.2.232
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Little, R. J. A. (1988). A test of missing completely at random for multivariate data with missing values. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 83, 1198–1202.10.1080/01621459.1988.10478722
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lyubomirsky, S., King, L., & Diener, E. (2005). The benefits of frequent positive affect: Does happiness lead to success? Psychological Bulletin, 131, 803–855. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.131.6.80310.1037/0033-2909.131.6.803
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lyubomirsky, S., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1995). Effects of self-focused rumination on negative thinking and interpersonal problem solving. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 176–190. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.1.17610.1037/0022-3514.69.1.176
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lyubomirsky, S., & Tkach, C. (2004). The consequences of dysphoric rumination. In C. Papageorgiou & A. Wells (Eds.), Depressive rumination: nature, theory and treatment (pp. 21–42). Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
   Google Scholar
• Lyubomirsky, S., Tucker, K. L., Caldwell, N. D., & Berg, K. (1999). Why ruminators are poor problem solvers: Clues from the phenomenology of dysphoric rumination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 1041–1060. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.77.5.104110.1037/0022-3514.77.5.1041
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moorey, S. (2010). The six cycles maintenance model: Growing a “vicious flower” for depression. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 38, 173–184. doi:10.1017/S135246580999058010.1017/S1352465809990580
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morrow, J., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1990). Effects of responses to depression on the remediation of depressive affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 519–527. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.58.3.51910.1037/0022-3514.58.3.519
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neff, K. D. (2003a). The development and validation of a scale to measure self-compassion. Self and Identity, 2, 223–250. doi:10.1080/1529886030902710.1080/15298860309027
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neff, K. D. (2003b). Self-compassion: An alternative conceptualization of a healthy attitude toward oneself. Self and Identity, 2, 85–101. doi:10.1080/1529886030903210.1080/15298860309032
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neff, K. D. (2009). The role of self-compassion in development: A healthier way to relate to oneself. [Editorial]. Human Development, 52, 211–214. doi:10.1159/00021507110.1159/000215071
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neff, K. D., & Germer, C. K. (2013). A pilot study and randomized controlled trial of the mindful self-compassion program. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 69, 28–44. doi:10.1002/jclp.2192310.1002/jclp.21923
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neff, K. D., Kirkpatrick, K. L., & Rude, S. S. (2007). Self-compassion and adaptive psychological functioning. Journal of Research in Personality, 41, 139–154. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2006.03.00410.1016/j.jrp.2006.03.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1987). Sex differences in unipolar depression: Evidence and theory. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 259–282. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.101.2.25910.1037/0033-2909.101.2.259
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1991). Responses to depression and their effects on the duration of depressive episodes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 569–582. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.100.4.569.10.1037/0021-843X.100.4.569
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Davis, C. G. (1999). “Thanks for sharing that”: Ruminators and their social support networks. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 801–814. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.77.4.80110.1037/0022-3514.77.4.801
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Morrow, J., & Fredrickson, B. L. (1993). Response styles and the duration of episodes of depressed mood. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 20–28. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.102.1.2010.1037/0021-843X.102.1.20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Parker, L. E., & Larson, J. (1994). Ruminative coping with depressed mood following loss. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 92–104. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.1.9210.1037/0022-3514.67.1.92
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Rethinking rumination. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3, 400–424. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.x10.1111/ppsc.2008.3.issue-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Odou, N., & Brinker, J. (2014). Exploring the relationship between rumination, self-compassion and mood. Self and Identity, 13, 449–459. doi:10.1080/15298868.2013.840332
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Papageorgiou, C., & Wells, A. (2001). Positive beliefs about depressive rumination: Development and preliminary validation of a self-report scale. Behavior Therapy, 32, 13–26. doi:10.1016/S0005-7894%2801%2980041-110.1016/S0005-7894(01)80041-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raes, F. (2010). Rumination and worry as mediators of the relationship between self-compassion and depression and anxiety. Personality and Individual Differences, 48, 757–761. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.02310.1016/j.paid.2010.01.023
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raes, F. (2011). The effect of self-compassion on the development of depression symptoms in a non-clinical sample. Mindfulness, 2, 33–36. doi:10.1007/s12671-011-0040-y10.1007/s12671-011-0040-y
   Google Scholar
• Ramel1, W., Goldin, P. R., Carmona, P. E., & McQuaid, J. R. (2004). The effects of mindfulness meditation on cognitive processes and affect in patients with past depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 28, 433–455. doi:10.1023/B:COTR.0000045557.15923.9610.1023/B:COTR.0000045557.15923.96
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roelofs, J., Rood, L., Meesters, C., te Dorsthorst, V., Bögels, S., Alloy, L. B., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2009). The influence of rumination and distraction on depressed and anxious mood: A prospective examination of the response styles theory in children and adolescents. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 18, 635–642. doi:10.1007/s00787-009-0026-710.1007/s00787-009-0026-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosvold, H., Mirsky, A. F., Sarason, I., Bransome, E. D., Jr., & Beck, L. H. (1956). A continuous performance test of brain damage. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 20, 343–350. doi:10.1037/h004322010.1037/h0043220
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shahar, B., & Herr, N. R. (2011). Depressive symptoms predict inflexibly high levels of experiential avoidance in response to daily negative affect: A daily diary study. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 49, 676–681. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2011.07.00610.1016/j.brat.2011.07.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shapira, L. B., & Mongrain, M. (2010). The benefits of self-compassion and optimism exercises for individuals vulnerable to depression. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 5, 377–389. doi:10.1080/17439760.2010.51676310.1080/17439760.2010.516763
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shapiro, S. L., Brown, K. W., & Biegel, G. M. (2007). Teaching self-care to caregivers: Effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction on the mental health of therapists in training. Training and Education in Professional Psychology, 1, 105–115. doi:10.1037/1931-3918.1.2.10510.1037/1931-3918.1.2.105
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singer, A. R., & Dobson, K. S. (2007). An experimental investigation of the cognitive vulnerability to depression. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 563–575. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2006.05.00710.1016/j.brat.2006.05.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanford School of Medicine. (2014, August 4). About compassion cultivation training. Retrieved from http://ccare.stanford.edu/education/about-compassion-cultivation-training-cct/
   Google Scholar
• Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063–1070. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.106310.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wegner, D. M. (1994). Ironic processes of mental control. Psychological Review, 101, 34–52. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.101.1.3410.1037/0033-295X.101.1.34
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wenzlaff, R. M., & Luxton, D. D. (2003). The role of thought suppression in depressive rumination. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27, 293–308. doi:10.1023/A:102396640054010.1023/A:1023966400540
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar