References
- Akande, A. (2000). Effects of exposure to violence and poverty on young children: The Southern African context. Early Child Development and Care, 163(1), 61–78. https://doi.org/10.1080/0300443001630105
- Aker, J. C., & Mbiti, I. M. (2010). Mobile phones and economic development in Africa. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 24(3), 207–232. doi: 10.1257/jep.24.3.207
- Arslan, G. (2017). Psychological maltreatment, coping strategies, and mental health problems: A brief and effective measure of psychological maltreatment in adolescents. Child Abuse & Neglect, 68, 96–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.03.023
- Carneiro, P., Meghir, C., & Parey, M. (2013). Maternal education, home environments, and the development of children and adolescents. Journal of the European Economic Association, 11(suppl_1), 123–160. doi: 10.1111/j.1542-4774.2012.01096.x
- Chander, P., Kvalsvig, J., Mellins, C. A., Kauchali, S., Arpadi, S. M., Taylor, M., … Davidson, L. L. (2017). Intimate partner violence and child behavioral problems in South Africa. Pediatrics, 139(3), e20161059.
- Chaudhury, S., Brown, F. L., Kirk, C. M., Mukunzi, S., Nyirandagijimana, B., Mukandanga, J., … Betancourt, T. S. (2016). Exploring the potential of a family-based prevention intervention to reduce alcohol use and violence within HIV-affected families in Rwanda. AIDS Care, 28(sup2), 118–129. doi: 10.1080/09540121.2016.1176686
- Colucci, E., & Hassan, G. (2014). Prevention of domestic violence against women and children in low-income and middle-income countries. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 27(5), 350–357. doi: 10.1097/yco.0000000000000088
- de Araújo, R., & Lara, D. R. (2016). More than words: The association of childhood emotional abuse and suicidal behavior. European Psychiatry, 37, 14–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2016.04.002
- Devries, K. M., Knight, L., Child, J. C., Kyegombe, N., Hossain, M., Lees, S., … Naker, D. (2017). Witnessing intimate partner violence and child maltreatment in Ugandan children: A cross-sectional survey. BMJ Open, 7(2), e013583. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2016-013583
- Efevbera, Y., McCoy, D. C., Wuermli, A. J., & Betancourt, T. S. (2017). Early childhood development plus violence prevention in low-and middle-income countries: A qualitative study. Children & Society, 31(2), 98–109. https://doi.org/10.1111/chso.12169
- Evans, S. E., Davies, C., & DiLillo, D. (2008). Exposure to domestic violence: A meta-analysis of child and adolescent outcomes. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 13(2), 131–140. doi: 10.1016/j.avb.2008.02.005
- Finkelhor, D., Turner, H. A., Shattuck, A., & Hamby, S. L. (2015). Prevalence of childhood exposure to violence, crime, and abuse: Results from the national survey of children’s exposure to violence. JAMA Pediatrics, 169(8), 746–754. doi: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2015.0676
- García-Moreno, C., Jansen, H. A., Ellsberg, M., Heise, L., & Watts, C. (2005). WHO multi-country study on women's health and domestic violence against women: Initial results on prevalence, health outcomes and women's responses. Geneva: World Health Organization.
- Gershoff, E. T., Grogan-Kaylor, A., Lansford, J. E., Chang, L., Zelli, A., Deater-Deckard, K., & Dodge, K. A. (2010). Parent discipline practices in an international sample: Associations with child behaviors and moderation by perceived normativeness. Child Development, 81(2), 487–502. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01409.x
- Goodman, R. (1997). The Strengths and difficulties questionnaire: A research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 38(5), 581–586. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1997.tb01545.x
- Hecker, T., Hermenau, K., Isele, D., & Elbert, T. (2014). Corporal punishment and children's externalizing problems: A cross-sectional study of Tanzanian primary school aged children. Child Abuse & Neglect, 38(5), 884–892. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.11.007
- Herrenkohl, T. I., Sousa, C., Tajima, E. A., Herrenkohl, R. C., & Moylan, C. A. (2008). Intersection of child abuse and children's exposure to domestic violence. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 9(2), 84–99. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838008314797
- Jayaratne, K., Kelaher, M., & Dunt, D. (2010). Child health partnerships: A review of program characteristics, outcomes and their relationship. BMC Health Services Research, 10, 172. doi: 10.1186/1472-6963-10-172
- Johnsona, R. M., Kotch, J. B., Catellier, D. J., Winsor, J. R., Dufort, V., Hunter, W., & Amaya-Jackson, L. (2002). Adverse behavioral and emotional outcomes from child abuse and witnessed violence. Child Maltreatment, 7(3), 179–186. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559502007003001
- Kariuki, S. M., Abubakar, A., Murray, E., Stein, A., & Newton, C. R. (2016). Evaluation of psychometric properties and factorial structure of the pre-school child behaviour checklist at the Kenyan Coast. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 10(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-015-0089-9
- Kenya AIDS Strategic Framework 2014-15-2018/2019. (2014). Retrieved from https://www.undp.org/content/dam/kenya/docs/Democratic20Governance/KENYA20AIDS20STRATEGIC20FRAMEWORK.pdf.
- Kenya County Fact Sheets. (2011). Retrieved from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTAFRICA/Resources/257994-1335471959878/Kenya_County_Fact_Sheets_Dec2011.pdf.
- Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. (2015). Kenya demographic and health survey 2014. MD, USA. Retrieved from Rockville. http://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/FR308/FR308.pdf
- Landers, C. (2014). Integrating early childhood development and violence prevention; A Landscape analysis: Networks, Campaigns, Movements, and Initiatives. Retrieved from http://www.cpcnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/ECD-Violence-Prevention-Final-Report-1.pdf
- Lansford, J. E., & Deater-Deckard, K. (2012). Childrearing discipline and violence in developing countries. Child Development, 83(1), 62–75. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01676.x
- Lansford, J. E., Wager, L. B., Bates, J. E., Pettit, G. S., & Dodge, K. A. (2012). Forms of spanking and children's externalizing behaviors. Family Relations, 61(2), 224–236. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2011.00700.x
- Ma, J., Han, Y., Grogan-Kaylor, A., Delva, J., & Castillo, M. (2012). Corporal punishment and youth externalizing behavior in Santiago, Chile. Child Abuse & Neglect, 36(6), 481–490. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2012.03.006
- MacKenzie, M. J., Nicklas, E., Waldfogel, J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2012). Corporal punishment and child behavioural and cognitive outcomes through 5 years of age: Evidence from a contemporary urban birth cohort study. Infant and Child Development, 21(1), 3–33. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.758
- Maguire, S., Williams, B., Naughton, A., Cowley, L., Tempest, V., Mann, M., … Kemp, A. (2015). A systematic review of the emotional, behavioural and cognitive features exhibited by school-aged children experiencing neglect or emotional abuse. Child: Care, Health And Development, 41(5), 641–653. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.12227
- Meinck, F., Cluver, L. D., Boyes, M. E., & Mhlongo, E. L. (2015). Risk and protective factors for physical and sexual abuse of children and adolescents in Africa: A review and implications for practice. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 16(1), 81–107. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838014523336
- Meltzer, H., Doos, L., Vostanis, P., Ford, T., & Goodman, R. (2009). The mental health of children who witness domestic violence. Child & Family Social Work, 14(4), 491–501. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2206.2009.00633.x
- Mills, R., Alati, R., O'Callaghan, M., Najman, J. M., Williams, G. M., Bor, W., & Strathearn, L. (2011). Child abuse and neglect and cognitive Function at 14 years of Age: Findings from a Birth cohort. Pediatrics, 127(1), 4–10. doi: 10.1542/peds.2009-3479
- Moylan, C. A., Herrenkohl, T. I., Sousa, C., Tajima, E. A., Herrenkohl, R. C., & Russo, M. J. (2010). The effects of child abuse and exposure to domestic violence on adolescent internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. Journal of Family Violence, 25(1), 53–63. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-009-9269-9
- Mudany, M. A., Nduati, R., Mboori-Ngacha, D., & Rutherford, G. W. (2013). Perceptions of child discipline and its contributions to child abuse in a low-income community in Nairobi, Kenya. Paediatrics and International Child Health, 33(4), 228–232. https://doi.org/10.1179/2046905513Y.0000000071
- Norman, R. E., Byambaa, M., De, R., Butchart, A., Scott, J., & Vos, T. (2012). The long-term health consequences of child physical abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Medicine, 9(11), e1001349. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001349
- Pengpid, S., & Peltzer, K. (2013). Mental health, partner violence and HIV risk among women with protective orders against violent partners in Vhembe district, South Africa. Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 6(6), 494–499. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2013.06.005
- Pinquart, M. (2017). Associations of parenting dimensions and styles with externalizing problems of children and adolescents: An updated meta-analysis. Developmental Psychology, 53(5), 873. http://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000295
- Pulerwitz, J., & Barker, G. (2008). Measuring attitudes toward gender norms among young men in Brazil: Development and psychometric evaluation of the GEM scale. Men and Masculinities, 10(3), 322–338. https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184X06298778
- Pulerwitz, J., Hughes, L., Mehta, M., Kidanu, A., Verani, F., & Tewolde, S. (2015). Changing gender norms and reducing intimate partner violence: Results from a quasi-experimental intervention study with young men in Ethiopia. American Journal Of Public Health, 105(1), 132–137. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2014.302214
- Ramiro, L. S., Madrid, B. J., & Brown, D. W. (2010). Adverse childhood experiences (ACE) and health-risk behaviors among adults in a developing country setting. Child Abuse & Neglect, 34(11), 842–855. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2010.02.012
- Schneider, W., MacKenzie, M., Waldfogel, J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2015). Parent and child reporting of corporal punishment: New evidence from the fragile families and child wellbeing study. Child Indicators Research, 8(2), 347–358. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-014-9258-2
- Shapero, B. G., & Steinberg, L. (2013). Emotional reactivity and exposure to household stress in childhood predict psychological problems in adolescence. Journal Of Youth And Adolescence, 42(10), 1573–1582. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-9954-0
- Sherr, L., Skeen, S., Hensels, I. S., Tomlinson, M., & Macedo, A. (2016). The effects of caregiver and household HIV on child development: A community-based longitudinal study of young children. Child: Care, Health And Development, 42(6), 890–899. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.12387
- Sim, A., Annan, J., Puffer, E., Salhi, C., & Betancourt, T. (2014). Building happy families. Impact evaluation of a parenting and family skills intervention for migrant and displaced Burmese families in Thailand. New York, NY: International Rescue Committee.
- Sim, A., Puffer, E., Green, E., Chase, R., Zayzay, J., Garcia-Rolland, E., & Boone, L. (2014). Parents make the difference: Findings from a randomized impact evaluation of a parenting program in rural Liberia. New York: International Rescue Committee.
- Skeen, S., Macedo, A., Tomlinson, M., Hensels, I., & Sherr, L. (2016). Exposure to violence and psychological well-being over time in children affected by HIV/AIDS in South Africa and Malawi. AIDS Care, 28(sup1), 16–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540121.2016.1146219
- Skinner, D., Sharp, C., Marais, L., Serekoane, M., & Lenka, M. (2014). Assessing the value of and contextual and cultural acceptability of the Strength and difficulties questionnaire (SDQ) in evaluating mental health problems in HIV/AIDS affected children. International Journal of Mental Health, 43(4), 76–89. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207411.2015.1009314
- Spertus, I. L., Yehuda, R., Wong, C. M., Halligan, S., & Seremetis, S. V. (2003). Childhood emotional abuse and neglect as predictors of psychological and physical symptoms in women presenting to a primary care practice. Child Abuse & Neglect, 27(11), 1247–1258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2003.05.001
- Stephenson, R., Bartel, D., & Rubardt, M. (2012). Constructs of power and equity and their association with contraceptive use among men and women in rural Ethiopia and Kenya. Global Public Health, 7(6), 618–634. https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2012.672581
- Stoltenborgh, M., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Alink, L. R. A., & van Ijzendoorn, M. H. (2015). The prevalence of child maltreatment across the Globe: Review of a Series of Meta-analyses. Child Abuse Review, 24(1), 37–50. doi: 10.1002/car.2353
- Straus, M. A., & Hamby, S. L. (1997). Measuring physical & psychological maltreatment of children with the conflict tactics scales.
- Team, R. Core. (2019). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing.
- Tomlinson, M., Jordans, M., MacMillan, H., Betancourt, T., Hunt, X., & Mikton, C. (2017). Research priority setting for integrated early child development and violence prevention (ECD+) in low and middle income countries: An expert opinion exercise. Child Abuse & Neglect, 72, 131–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.07.021
- Tomlinson, M., Solomon, W., Singh, Y., Doherty, T., Chopra, M., Ijumba, P., … Jackson, D. (2009). The use of mobile phones as a data collection tool: A report from a household survey in South Africa. BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making, 9(1), 51. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6947-9-51
- UNICEF. (2012). Violence against children in Kenya: Findings from a 2010 National Survey. Summary Report on the Prevalence of Sexual, Physical and Emotional Violence, Context of Sexual Violence, and Health and Behavioral Consequences of Violence Experienced in Childhood.
- Vreeman, R. C., Scanlon, M. L., Marete, I., Mwangi, A., Inui, T. S., McAteer, C. I., & Nyandiko, W. M. (2015). Characteristics of HIV-infected adolescents enrolled in a disclosure intervention trial in western Kenya. AIDS Care, 27(sup1), 6–17. doi: 10.1080/09540121.2015.1026307
- WHO. (2016). INSPIRE: Seven strategies for ending violence against children. Geneva: World Health Organization.
- Wright, M. O. D., Crawford, E., & Del Castillo, D. (2009). Childhood emotional maltreatment and later psychological distress among college students: The mediating role of maladaptive schemas. Child Abuse & Neglect, 33(1), 59–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2008.12.007
- Ybarra, G. J., Wilkens, S. L., & Lieberman, A. F. (2007). The influence of domestic violence on preschooler behavior and functioning. Journal of Family Violence, 22(1), 33–42. doi: 10.1007/s10896-006-9054-y
- Yoshikawa, H., Aber, J. L., & Beardslee, W. R. (2012). The effects of poverty on the mental, emotional, and behavioral health of children and youth: Implications for prevention. American Psychologist, 67(4), 272–284. doi: 10.1037/a0028015