References
- Ajuebor, O., Boniol, M., McIsaac, M., Onyedike, C., & Akl, E. A. (2020). Increasing access to health workers in rural and remote areas: What do stakeholders’ value and find feasible and acceptable?. Human Resources for Health, 18(1), 77. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1186/s12960-020-00519-2
- Anderson-Carpenter, K. D., Sauter, H. M., Luiggi-Hernández, J. G., & Haight, P. E. (2019). Associations between perceived homophobia, community connectedness, and having a primary care provider among gay and bisexual men. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 16(3), 309–316. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-018-0347-8
- Baral, S., Logie, C. H., Grosso, A., Wirtz, A. L., & Beyrer, C. (2013). Modified social ecological model: A tool to guide the assessment of the risks and risk contexts of HIV epidemics. BMC Public Health, 13(1), 482. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-482
- Bauer, G. R., Travers, R., Scanlon, K., & Coleman, T. A. (2012). High heterogeneity of HIV-related sexual risk among transgender people in ontario, Canada: A province-wide respondent-driven sampling survey. BMC Public Health, 12(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-292
- Bernal, G., del Río, M. S., & Maldonado-Molina, M. M. (2003). Development of a brief scale for social support: Reliability and validity in Puerto Rico. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology, 3(2), 251–264.
- Beuermann, D. W., & Pecha, C. J. (2020). The effect of eliminating health user fees on adult health and labor supply in Jamaica. Journal of Health Economics, 73, 102355. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2020.102355
- Blodgett, N., Coughlan, R., & Khullar, N. (2018). Overcoming the barriers in transgender healthcare in rural ontario: Discourses of personal agency, resilience, and empowerment. International Social Science Journal, 67, 225–226. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/issj.12162
- Bonvicini, K. A. (2017). LGBT healthcare disparities: What progress have we made? Patient Education and Counseling, 100(12), 2357–2361. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pec.2017.06.003
- Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Harvard University Press.
- Chao, S. (2013). Jamaica’s effort in improving universal access within fiscal constraints. A report of the World Bank, universal health coverage studies series (UNICO) No. 6. World Bank.
- Charles, C. A. D. (2011). Representations of homosexuality in Jamaica. Social and EconomicStudies, 60(1), 3–29. 157,163.
- CIA. (2020). The world factbook: Jamaica. CIA. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/jm.html
- Class, D., Cavagnero, E., Rajkumar, S., & Ferl, K. (2014). Jamaica - health financing profile(English). health financing profile. World Bank.
- The Commonwealth Fund. (2019). Number of practicing physicians per 1000 population, 2017. The Commonwealth Fund. https://www.commonwealthfund.org/international-health-policy-center/system-stats/number-practicing-physicians
- Commonwealth Health Online. (2020). Health in Jamaica. Commonwealth Health. http://www.commonwealthhealth.org/americas/jamaica/
- Cruz, T. M. (2014). Assessing access to care for transgender and gender nonconforming people: A consideration of diversity in combating discrimination. Social Science and Medicine, 110, 65–73. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.03.032
- Cunningham, C. O., Shapiro, S., Berg, K. M., Sacajiu, G., Paccione, G., & Goulet, J. L. (2005). An evaluation of a medical outreach program targeting unstably housed HIV-infected individuals. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 16(1), 127–138. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1353/hpu.2005.0007
- Currie, M. R., Cunningham, E. G., & Findlay, B. M. (2004). The short internalized homonegativity scale: Examination of the factorial structure of a new measure of internalized homophobia. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 64(6), 1053–1067. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164404264845
- Currin, J. M., Hubach, R. D., Crethar, H. C., Hammer, T. R., Lee, H. S., & Larson, M. (2018). Barriers to accessing mental healthcare for gay and bisexual men living in Oklahoma. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 15(4), 483–496. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-018-0321-5
- de Vries, D. H., Eiling, E., Brenman, N., & Vermeulen, M. (2019). Collaboration between key populations in a global partnership for health and human rights: Lessons learned from ‘bridging the gaps’. Global Public Health, 14(8), 1125–1138. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2018.1549399
- Elliott, E., Watson, A. J., & Harries, U. (2002). Harnessing expertise: Involving peer interviewers in qualitative research with hard-to-reach populations. Health Expectations, 5(2), 172–178. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1369-6513.2002.00158.x
- Equaldex. (2020). LGBT Rights in Jamaica. Equaldex. https://www.equaldex.com/region/jamaica
- Furness, B. W., Goldhammer, H., Montalvo, W., Gagnon, K., Bifulco, L., Lentine, D., & Anderson, D. (2020). Transforming primary care for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people: A collaborative quality improvement initiative. The Annals of Family Medicine, 18(4), 292–302. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1370/afm.2542
- Gitterman, A., & Germain, C. B. (2008). Helping individuals, families, and groups with stressful life transitions and traumatic events. In A. Gitterman & C. B. Germain (eds.), The life model of social work practice (3rd ed., pp. 191–239). Columbia University Press.
- Gonzalez, H. M., Vega, W. A., Rodriguez, M. A., Tarraf, W., & Sribney, W. M. (2009). Diabetes awareness and knowledge among Latinos: Does a usual source of healthcare matter? Journal of General Internal Medicine, 24(Suppl. 3), 528–533. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-009-1076-8
- Hammond, W. P., Mohottige, D., Chantala, K., Hastings, J. F., Neighbors, H. W., & Snowden, L. (2011). Determinants of usual source of care disparities among African American and Caribbean Black men: Findings from the national survey of American life. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 22(1), 157–175. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1353/hpu.2011.0016
- Hatzenbuehler, M. L., Phelan, J. C., & Link, B. G. (2013). Stigma as a fundamental cause of population health inequities. American Journal of Public Health, 103(5), 813–821. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2012.301069
- Heck, J. E., Sell, R. L., & Sheinfeld, G. (2006). Health care access among individuals involved in same-sex relationships. American Journal of Public Health, 96(6), 1111–1118. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2005.062661
- Heckathorn, D. D. (1997). Respondent-driven sampling: A new approach to the study of hidden populations. Social Problems, 44(2), 174–199. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.2307/3096941
- Heckathorn, D. D. (2002). Respondent-driven sampling II: Deriving valid population estimates from chain-referral samples of hidden populations. Social Problems, 49(1), 11–34. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1525/sp.2002.49.1.11
- Henry-Lee, A., Bailey, W., & Gordon-Strachan, G. (2010). Coping strategies used by clients seeking preventive health care services, Jamaica. Social and Economic Studies, 59(1/2), 289–327. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.2307/27866619
- Human Rights First. (2012). Jamaica: Fact Sheet. Human Rights First. http://www.humanrightsfirst.org/sites/default/files/Jamaica-LGBT-Fact-Sheet.pdf
- The International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association (ILGA). (2019). The state -sponsored homophia report. ILGA.
- James, C., & Davis, A. (2014). Jamaican males’ readings of masculinities and the relationship to violence. Caribbean Review of Gender Studies, 8, 79–112.
- James, S. E., Herman, J. L., Rankin, S., Keisling, M., Mottet, L., & Anafi, M. (2016). The report of the 2015 U.S. transgender survey. National Center for Transgender Equality.
- Jandorf, L., Ellison, J., Villagra, C., Winkel, G., Varela, A., Quintero-Canetti, Z., Castillo, A., Thélémaque, L., King, S., & DuHamel, K. (2010). Understanding the barriers and facilitators of colorectal cancer screening among low income immigrant hispanics. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 12(4), 462–469. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-009-9274-3
- Kaplan, L. M., Vella, L., Cabral, E., Tieu, L., Ponath, C., Guzman, D., & Kushel, M. B. (2019). Unmet mental health and substance use treatment needs among older homeless adults: Results from the HOPE HOME study. Journal of Community Psychology, 47(8), 1893–1908. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.22233
- Katz, D. A., Swanson, F., & Stekler, J. D. (2013). Why do men who have sex with men test for HIV infection? Results from a community-based testing program in Seattle. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 40(9), 724–728. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1097/01.olq.0000431068.61471.af
- Lee, J. H., Giovenco, D., & Operario, D. (2017). Patterns of health information technology use according to sexual orientation among US adults aged 50 and older: Findings from a national representative sample—National Health Interview Survey 2013–2014. Journal of Health Communication, 22(8), 666–671. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2017.1341566
- Lelutiu-Weinberger, C., & Pachankis, J. E. (2017). Acceptability and preliminary efficacy of a lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender-affirmative mental health practice training in a highly stigmatizing national context. LGBT Health, 4(5), 360–370. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1089/lgbt.2016.0194
- Lin, J., Hecht, J., Plenty, A. H., Siedle-Khan, B., Zamudio-Haas, S., Ayala, A., & Charlebois, E. D. (2019). Alcohol consumption and management strategies among gay bar patrons in San Francisco and oakland, CA. Contemporary Drug Problems, 46(1), 22–40. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0091450918814001
- Lofters, A. K. (2012). The “Brain Drain” of health care workers: Causes, solutions and the example of Jamaica. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 103(5), e376–e378. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03404445
- Logie, C. H., Kenny, K. S., Lacombe-Duncan, A., Levermore, K., Jones, N., Neil, A., Ellis, T., Marshall, A., & Newman, P. A. (2018a). Social–ecological factors associated with HIV infection among men who have sex with men in Jamaica. International Journal of STD & AIDS, 29(1), 80–88. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0956462417717652
- Logie, C. H., Lacombe-Duncan, A., Brien, N., Jones, N., Lee-Foon, N., Levermore, K., Marshall, A., Nyblade, L., & Newman, P. A. (2017a). Barriers and facilitators to HIV testing among young men who have sex with men and transgender women in Kingston, Jamaica: A qualitative study. Journal of the International AIDS Society, 20(1), 21385. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.7448/IAS.20.1.21385
- Logie, C. H., Lacombe-Duncan, A., Kenny, K. S., Levermore, K., Jones, N., Baral, S. D., Wang, Y., Marshall, A., & Newman, P. A. (2018b). Social-ecological factors associated with selling sex among men who have sex with men in Jamaica: Results from a cross-sectional tablet-based survey. Global Health Action, 11(1), 1424614. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/16549716.2018.1424614
- Logie, C. H., Lacombe-Duncan, A., Kenny, K. S., Levermore, K., Jones, N., Marshall, A., & Newman, P. A. (2017b). Associations between police harassment and HIV vulnerabilities among men who have sex with men and transgender women in Jamaica. Health and Human Rights Journal, 19(2), 147–154.
- Logie, C. H., Lacombe-Duncan, A., Wang, Y., Jones, N., Levermore, K., Neil, A., Bryan, N., Harker, S., Marshall, A., & Newman, P. A. (2016a). Prevalence and correlates of HIV infection and HIV testing among transgender women in Jamaica. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 30(9), 416–424. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1089/apc.2016.0145
- Logie, C. H., Lacombe-Duncan, A., Wang, Y., Levermore, K., Jones, N., Ellis, T., Bryan, N., & Grace, D. (2020). Adapting the psychological mediation framework for cisgender and transgender sexual minorities in Jamaica: Implications from latent versus observed variable approaches to sexual stigma. Social Science and Medicine, 245, 112663. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112663
- Logie, C. H., Lee-Foon, N., Jones, N., Mena, K., Levermore, K., Newman, P. A., Andrinopoulos, K., Baral, S. (2016b). Exploring lived experiences of violence and coping among lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender youth in Kingston, Jamaica. International Journal of Sexual Health, 28(4), 343–353. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/19317611.2016.1223253
- Logie, C. H., Wang, Y., Lacombe-Duncan, A., Ahmed, U., Jones, N., Neil, A., Ellis, T., Levermore, K., Marshall, A., & Newman, P. A. (2018c). Factors associated with syphilis testing and a history of syphilis infection among a sample of transgender women in Jamaica. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 45(3), 158–162. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1097/OLQ.0000000000000715
- Logie, C. H., Wang, Y., Lacombe-Duncan, A., Jones, N., Ahmed, U., Levermore, K., Neil, A., Ellis, T., Bryan, N., Marshall, A., & Newman, P. A. (2017c). Factors associated with sex work involvement among transgender women in Jamaica: A cross-sectional study. Journal of the International AIDS Society, 20(1), 21422. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.7448/IAS.20.01/21422
- Lovell, J. S. (2016). ‘We are Jamaicans:’ living with and challenging the criminalization of homosexuality in Jamaica. Contemporary Justice Review, 19(1), 86–102. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/10282580.2015.1101687
- Lyons, A., Hosking, W., & Rozbroj, T. (2015). Rural-urban differences in mental health, resilience, stigma, and social support among young Australian gay men. The Journal of Rural Health, 31(1), 89–97. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/jrh.12089
- Mansh, M., Garcia, G., & Lunn, M. R. (2015). From patients to providers: Changing the culture in medicine toward sexual and gender minorities. Academic Medicine, 90(5), 574–580. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0000000000000656
- Martinez-Donate, A. P., Vera-Cala, L. M., Zhang, X., V, R., Angulo, R., & Atkinson, T. (2013). Prevalence and correlates of breast and cervical cancer screening among a midwest community sample of low-acculturated latinas. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 24(4), 1717–1738. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1353/hpu.2013.0165
- McDowell, M. J., Goldhammer, H., Potter, J. E., & Keuroghlian, A. S. (2020). Strategies to mitigate clinician implicit bias against sexual and gender minority patients. Psychosomatics, 61(6), 655–661. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psym.2020.04.021
- Milner, G. E., & McNally, R. J. (2020). Nonadherence to breast and cervical cancer screening among sexual minority women: Do stigma-related psychological barriers play a role? Health Psychology, 39(10), 891–899. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0000887
- Mulé, N. J., Ross, L. E., Deeprose, B., Jackson, B. E., Daley, A., Travers, A., & Moore, D. (2009). Promoting LGBT health and wellbeing through inclusive policy development. International Journal for Equity in Health, 8(18). https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-9276-8-18
- National Health Fund. (n.d.). NHF Card – Illness and Benefits Covered. National Health Fund. https://www.nhf.org.jm/the-nhf-card/illnesses-covered-benefits-offered
- Newman, P. A., Roungprakhon, S., & Tepjan, S. (2013). A social ecology of rectal microbicide acceptability among young men who have sex with men and transgender women in Thailand. Journal of the International AIDS Society, 16(1), 18476. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.7448/IAS.16.1.18476
- Patterson, J. G., Jabson Tree, J. M., & Kamen, C. (2019). Cultural competency and microagressions in the provision of care to LGBT patients in rural and Appalachian Tennessee. Patient Education and Counseling, 102(11), 2081–2090. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pec.2019.06.003
- Poteat, T., Park, C., Solares, D., Williams, J. K., Wolf, R. C., Metheny, N., Vazzano, A., Dent, J., Gibbs, A., Nonyane, B. A. S., & Toiv, N. (2017). Changing hearts and minds: Results from a multi-country gender and sexual diversity training. PLoS One, 12(9), e0184484. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0184484
- Prang, K., Berecki-Gisolf, J., & Newman, S. (2016). The influence of social support on healthcare service use followign transport-related musculoskeletal injury. BMC Health Services Research, 16(1), 310. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-016-1582-4
- Reisner, S. L., Poteat, T., Keatley, J., Cabral, M., Mothopeng, T., Dunham, E., Holland, C. E., Max, R., & Baral, S. D. (2016). Global health burden and needs of transgender populations: A review. The Lancet, 388(10042), 412–436. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)00684-X
- Robbins, S. P., Chatterjee, P., & Canda, E. R. (2011). Systems theory (Chapter 2). In S. P. Robbins, P. Chatterjee, & E. R. Canda (Eds.), Contemporary human behavior theory: A critical perspective for social work (3rd ed., pp. 25–58). Allyn & Bacon.
- Rogers, S. J., Tureski, K., Cushnie, A., Brown, A., Bailey, A., & Palmer, Q. (2014). Layered stigma among health-care and social service providers toward key affected populations in Jamaica and The Bahamas. AIDS Care, 26(5), 538–546. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/09540121.2013.844762
- Rokou, T. (2020). Ocho Rios number 1 port in Jamaica, contributing 40% of total arrivals in 2019. Travel Daily News International. https://www.traveldailynews.com/post/ocho-rios-number-1-port-in-jamaica-contributing-40-of-total-arrivals-in-2019.
- Rosenkrantz, D. E., Black, W. W., Abreu, R. L., Aleshire, M. E., & Fallin-Bennett, K. (2017). Health and health care of rural sexual and gender minorities: A systematic review. Stigma and Health, 2(3), 229–243. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/sah0000055
- Smith, D. E. (2018). Homophobic and transphobic violence against youth: The Jamaican context. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 23(2), 250–258. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2017.1336106
- Smith, B. W., Dalen, J., Wiggins, K., Tooley, E., Christopher, P., & Bernard, J. (2008). The brief resilience scale: Assessing the ability to bounce back. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 15(3), 194–200. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/10705500802222972
- US Department of Health and Human Services. (2020). Access to Health Services. US Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.healthypeople.gov/2020/topics-objectives/topic/Access-to-Health-Services
- West, K. (2016). Jamaica, three years later: Effects of intensified pro-gay activism on severe prejudice against lesbians and gay men. The Journal of Sex Research, 53(9), 1107–1117. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2016.1221028
- West, K. (2018). Understanding and reducing sexual prejudice in Jamaica: Theoretical and practical insights from a severely anti-gay society. The Journal of Sex Research, 55(4–5), 472–485. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2017.1416055
- Western Regional Health Authority. (n.d.). Our regional hospitals. Western Regional Health Authority. https://www.wrha.gov.jm/about-us/
- White Hughto, J. M., Reisner, S. L., & Pachankis, J. E. (2015). Transgender stigma and health: A critical review of stigma determinants, mechanisms, and interventions. Social Science & Medicine, 147, 222–231. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.11.010
- World Bank. (2017). Physicians (per 1,000 people) – Jamaica. World Bank. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.MED.PHYS.ZS?locations=JM
- World Population Review. (2020). Population of cities in Jamaica 2020. World Population Review. https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/cities/jamaica