330
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

Sybil attack vulnerability trilemma

, &
Pages 446-460 | Received 02 Jan 2024, Accepted 04 May 2024, Published online: 14 May 2024

References

  • Rennels DA. Distributed fault-tolerant computer systems. Computer. 1980 Mar;13(3):55–65. doi: 10.1109/MC.1980.1653534
  • Avižienis A. Framework for a taxonomy of fault-tolerance attributes in computer systems. In: Proceedings of the 10th Annual International Symposium on Computer Architecture; Stockholm, Sweden: ACM; 1983. p. 16–21.
  • Pease M, Shostak R, Lamport L. Reaching agreement in the presence of faults. J ACM. 1980 Apr;27(2):228–234. doi: 10.1145/322186.322188
  • Douceur JR. The Sybil attack. In: Druschel P, Kaashoek F, Rowstron A, editors. Proceedings of the 1st International Workshop on Peer-to-Peer Systems. Cambridge (MA), USA: Springer; 2002. p. 251–260.
  • Nakamoto S. Bitcoin: a peer-to-peer electronic cash system; 2008. [cited 2023 April 19]. Available from: https://bitcoin.org/bitcoin.pdf.
  • Sedlmeir J, Buhl HU, Fridgen G, et al. The energy consumption of blockchain technology: beyond myth. Bus Inf Syst Eng. 2020 Jun;62(6):599–608. doi: 10.1007/s12599-020-00656-x
  • Zhang R, Preneel B. Lay down the common metrics: evaluating proof-of-work consensus protocols’ security. In: Proceedings of the 2019 Symposium on Security and Privacy; May; San Francisco (CA), USA: IEEE; 2019. p. 175–192.
  • Poux P, De Filippi P, Deffains B. Maximal extractable value and the blockchain commons [Social Science Research Network]; 2022. Available from: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4198139.
  • Gervais A, Karame GO, Wüst K, et al. On the security and performance of proof of work blockchains. In: Proceedings of the 2016 Conference on Computer and Communications Security, CCS'16; Vienna, Austria: ACM; 2016 Oct. p. 3–16.
  • Racsko P. Blockchain and democracy. Soc Econ. 2019 Sep;41(3):353–369.
  • De Angelis S, Lombardi F, Zanfino G, et al. Security and dependability analysis of blockchain systems in partially synchronous networks with Byzantine faults. Int J Parallel Emergent Distrib Syst. 2023 Oct;1–21. doi: 10.1080/17445760.2023.2272777
  • Gans J, Gandal N. More (or less) economic limits of the blockchain. Cambridge (MA), USA: National Bureau of Economic Research; 2019. Working Paper 26534. Available from: https://www.nber.org/papers/w26534.
  • Saleh F. Blockchain without waste: proof-of-stake. Rev Financ Stud. 2020 Jul;34(3):1156–1190. doi: 10.1093/rfs/hhaa075
  • Sai AR, Buckley J, Fitzgerald B, et al. Taxonomy of centralization in public blockchain systems: a systematic literature review. Inf Process Manag. 2021 Jul;58(4):102584. doi: 10.1016/j.ipm.2021.102584
  • Yang Z, Wilson C, Wang X, et al. Uncovering social network Sybils in the wild. ACM Trans Knowl Discov Data. 2014 Feb;8(1):1–29. doi: 10.1145/2556609
  • Kleinrock L. Information flow in large communication nets [Thesis proposal]; 1961.
  • Aviziens A. Fault-tolerant systems. IEEE Trans Comput. 1976 Dec;C–25(12):1304–1312. doi: 10.1109/TC.1976.1674598
  • Hu VC, Kuhn DR, Ferraiolo DF. Access control for emerging distributed systems. Computer. 2018 Oct;51(10):100–103. doi: 10.1109/MC.2018.3971347
  • Bacon J, Moody K. Access control in distributed systems. In: Herbert A, Spärck Jones K, editors. Computer systems. Cham, Switzerland: Springer; 2004. p. 21–28.
  • Hartwich E, Rieger A, Sedlmeir J, et al. Machine economies. Electron Mark. 2023 Jul;33(1):36. doi: 10.1007/s12525-023-00649-0
  • Rocco G. Public blockchains as a means to resist information censorship [Master's thesis]. New York (NY), USA: City University of New York; 2019. Available from: https://academicworks.cuny.edu/gc_etds/2995/.
  • Jarvis C. Cypherpunk ideology: objectives, profiles, and influences (1992–1998). Internet Histories. 2021 Jun;6(3):315–342. doi: 10.1080/24701475.2021.1935547
  • Bohr J, Bashir M. Who uses Bitcoin? An exploration of the Bitcoin community. In: Proceedings of the 12th Annual International Conference on Privacy, Security and Trust; Toronto (ON), Canada: IEEE; 2014 Jul. p. 94–101.
  • Glaser F, Zimmermann K, Haferkorn M, et al. Bitcoin–asset or currency? Revealing users' hidden intentions. In: Proceedings of the 22nd European Conference on Information Systems; Jun.; Tel Aviv, Israel: AIS; 2014. p. 1–14. Available from: https://aisel.aisnet.org/ecis2014/proceedings/track10/15/.
  • Jonker N. What drives the adoption of crypto-payments by online retailers?. Electron Commer R A. 2019 May;35:100848. doi: 10.1016/j.elerap.2019.100848
  • Beinke JH, Nguyen D, Teuteberg F. Towards a business model taxonomy of startups in the finance sector using blockchain. In: Proceedings of the 2018 International Conference on Information Systems; San Francisco (CA), USA; 2018. p. 1–9. Available from: https://aisel.aisnet.org/icis2018/crypto/Presentations/9.
  • Aquilina M, Frost J, Schrimpf A. Tackling the risks in crypto: choosing among bans, containment and regulation. J Jpn Int Econ. 2024 Mar;71:101286. doi: 10.1016/j.jjie.2023.101286
  • Piazza F. Bitcoin in the Dark Web: a shadow over banking secrecy and a call for global response. South Calif Interdiscip Law J. 2017;26(3):493–520.
  • Trozze A, Kamps J, Akartuna EA, et al. Cryptocurrencies and future financial crime. Crime Sci. 2022 Jan;11(1. doi: 10.1186/s40163-021-00163-8
  • Hamdan S, Hudaib A, Awajan A. Detecting Sybil attacks in vehicular ad hoc networks. Int J Parallel Emergent Distrib Syst. 2019 May;36(2):69–79. doi: 10.1080/17445760.2019.1617865
  • Paulavičius R, Grigaitis S, Igumenov A, et al. A decade of blockchain: review of the current status, challenges, and future directions. Informatica. 2019 Jan;30(4):729–748. doi: 10.15388/Informatica.2019.227
  • Tai S, Eberhardt J, Klems M. Not ACID, not BASE, but SALT -- a transaction processing perspective on blockchains. In: Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Cloud Computing and Services Science; Porto, Portugal: SciTePress; 2017. p. 755–764.
  • Tholoniat P, Gramoli V. Formal verification of blockchain Byzantine fault tolerance. In: Tran DA, Thai MT, Krishnamachari B, editors. Handbook on blockchain. Cham, Switzerland: Springer; 2022. p. 389–412. (Springer Optimization and Its Applications).
  • Nabben K, Zargham M. Permissionlessness. Int Policy Rev. 2022;11(2):1–10.
  • Tezel A, Papadonikolaki E, Yitmen I, et al. Preparing construction supply chains for blockchain technology: an investigation of its potential and future directions. Front Eng Manag. 2020 May;7(4):547–563. doi: 10.1007/s42524-020-0110-8
  • Platt M, McBurney P. Sybil in the haystack: a comprehensive review of blockchain consensus mechanisms in search of strong Sybil attack resistance. Algorithms. 2023 Jan;16(1):34. doi: 10.3390/a16010034
  • Valenta M, Sandner P. Comparison of Ethereum, Hyperledger Fabric and Corda. Frankfurt School Blockchain Center; 2017. FSBC working paper. Available from: http://explore-ip.com/2017_Comparison-of-Ethereum-Hyperledger-Corda.pdf.
  • Nadir RM. Comparative study of permissioned blockchain solutions for enterprises. In: Proceedings of the 2019 International Conference on Innovative Computing; Nov.; Lahore, Pakistan: IEEE; 2019. p. 1–6.
  • Polge J, Robert J, Traon YL. Permissioned blockchain frameworks in the industry: a comparison. ICT Express. 2021 Jun;7(2):229–233. doi: 10.1016/j.icte.2020.09.002
  • Bach LM, Mihaljevic B, Zagar M. Comparative analysis of blockchain consensus algorithms. In: Proceedings of the 41st International Convention on Information and Communication Technology, Electronics and Microelectronics; Opatija, Croatia: IEEE; 2018 May. p. 1545–1550.
  • Anceaume E, Busnel Y, Sericola B. Byzantine-tolerant uniform node sampling service in large-scale networks. Int J Parallel Emergent Distrib Syst. 2021 Jun;36(5):412–439. doi: 10.1080/17445760.2021.1939873
  • Platt M, McBurney P. Sybil attacks on identity-augmented proof-of-stake. Comput Netw. 2021 Nov;199:108424. doi: 10.1016/j.comnet.2021.108424
  • Meir R, Talmon N, Shahaf G, et al. Sybil-resilient social choice with low voter turnout. In: Baumeister D, Rothe J, editors. Proceedings of the 2022 European Conference on Multi-Agent Systems; Düsseldorf, Germany: Springer; 2022. p. 257–274.
  • Castro M, Liskov B. Practical Byzantine fault tolerance. In: Proceedings of the 3rd Symposium on Operating Systems Design and Implementation; New Orleans (LA), USA: USENIX; 1999 Feb. p. 173–186.
  • Ongaro D, Ousterhout J. In search of an understandable consensus algorithm. In: Proceedings of the 2014 USENIX Annual Technical Conference; Jun.; Philadelphia (PA), USA: USENIX; 2014. p. 305–320.
  • Back A. Hashcash -- a denial of service counter-measure; 2002. [cited 2023 Dec 30]. Available from: http://www.hashcash.org/papers/hashcash.pdf.
  • Leshno J, Strack PB. An impossibility theorem for proof-of-work based protocols. New Haven (CT), USA: Yale University; 2019. Cowles Foundation Discussion Paper 2204R. Available from: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3487355.
  • Platt M, Ojeka S, Drăgnoiu AE, et al. Energy demand unawareness and the popularity of Bitcoin: evidence from Nigeria. Oxford Open Energy. 2023;2:oiad012. doi: 10.1093/ooenergy/oiad012.
  • Platt M, Sedlmeir J, Platt D, et al. The energy footprint of blockchain consensus mechanisms beyond proof-of-work. In: Companion Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on Software Quality, Reliability and Security; Hainan, China: IEEE; 2021. p. 1135–1144.
  • Treiblmaier H. Blockchain technology and sustainability. In: Abraham MA, editor. Encyclopedia of sustainable technologies. 2nd ed.; Vol. 3. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 2024. p. 850–860.
  • Li Y, Cheng J, Li H, et al. A survey of consensus mechanism based on reputation model. In: Xingming S, Zhang X, Xia Z, et al., editors. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Security; Qinghai, China: Springer; 2022. p. 208–221.
  • Arrow KJ. A difficulty in the concept of social welfare. J Political Econ. 1950 Aug;58(4):328–346. doi: 10.1086/256963
  • Gibbard A. Manipulation of voting schemes: a general result. Econometrica. 1973 Jul;41(4):587. doi: 10.2307/1914083
  • Satterthwaite MA. Strategy-proofness and Arrow's conditions: existence and correspondence theorems for voting procedures and social welfare functions. J Econ Theory. 1975 Apr;10(2):187–217. doi: 10.1016/0022-0531(75)90050-2
  • Poupko O, Shahaf G, Shapiro E, et al. Sybil-resilient conductance-based community growth. In: van Bevern R, Kucherov G, editors. Proceedings of the 14th International Computer Science Symposium in Russia; Novosibirsk, Russia: Springer; 2019. p. 359–371.
  • Tozzi C. Decentralizing democracy: approaches to consensus within blockchain communities. Teknokultura. 2019 Oct;16(2):181–195. doi: 10.5209/tekn.64523
  • Cila N, Ferri G, de Waal M, et al. The blockchain and the commons: Dilemmas in the design of local platforms. In: Proceedings of the 2020 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems; Honolulu (HI), USA: ACM; 2020 Apr. p. 1–14.
  • Mukhametov DR. Self-organization of network communities via blockchain technology: reputation systems and limits of digital democracy. In: Proceedings of the 2020 Conference on Systems of Signal Synchronization, Generating and Processing in Telecommunications; Svetlogorsk, Russia: IEEE; 2020 Jul. p. 1–7.
  • Wright A, De Filippi P. Decentralized blockchain technology and the rise of lex cryptographia. SSRN Electron J. 2015.
  • Razzaq A, Murad M, Talib R, et al. Use of blockchain in governance: a systematic literature review. Int J Adv Comput Sci Appl. 2019;10(5):685–691.
  • Dhillon A, Kotsialou G, McBurney P, et al. Voting over a distributed ledger: an interdisciplinary perspective. Found Trends Microecon. 2021;12(3):200–268. doi: 10.1561/0700000071
  • Wongthongtham P, Marrable D, Abu-Salih B, et al. Blockchain-enabled peer-to-peer energy trading. Comput Electric Eng. 2021 Sep;94:107299. doi: 10.1016/j.compeleceng.2021.107299
  • Rozas D, Tenorio-Fornés A, Díaz-Molina S, et al. When Ostrom meets blockchain: exploring the potentials of blockchain for commons governance. SAGE Open. 2021 Jan;11(1):215824402110025. doi: 10.1177/21582440211002526
  • DuPont Q. Experiments in algorithmic governance. In: Campbell-Verduyn M, editor. Bitcoin and beyond. Routledge; 2017. p. 157–177.
  • Ziolkowski R, Miscione G, Schwabe G. Decision problems in blockchain governance: old wine in new bottles or walking in someone else's shoes? J Manag Inf Syst. 2020 Apr;37(2):316–348. doi: 10.1080/07421222.2020.1759974
  • Cengiz F. Blockchain governance and governance via blockchain: decentralized utopia or centralized dystopia?. Policy Des Practice. 2023 Aug;6(4):446–464.
  • Rikken O, Janssen M, Kwee Z. Governance challenges of blockchain and decentralized autonomous organizations. Inf Polity. 2019 Dec;24(4):397–417. doi: 10.3233/IP-190154
  • Chohan UW. Cryptocurrencies and inequality. In: Goutte S, Guesmi K, Saadi S, editors. Cryptofinance. Singapore: World Scientific Publishing; 2021. p. 49–62.
  • Walsh M. Bitcoin, cryptocurrencies & the climate crisis. Irish Marxist Rev. 2021;10(30):80–89.
  • Leonardos N, Leonardos S, Piliouras G. Oceanic games: centralization risks and incentives in blockchain mining. In: Mathematical research for blockchain economy. Cham, Switzerland: Springer; 2020. p. 183–199.
  • Heo K, Yi S. (de)centralization in the governance of blockchain systems: cryptocurrency cases. J Organ Des. 2023 Mar;12:59–82.
  • Golle P, Jarecki S, Mironov I. Cryptographic primitives enforcing communication and storage complexity. In: Blaze M, editor. Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Financial Cryptography; Southampton, Bermuda: Springer; 2003. p. 120–135.
  • Bentov I, Gabizon A, Mizrahi A. Cryptocurrencies without proof of work. In: Clark J, Meiklejohn S, Ryan PY, et al., editors. Proceedings of the 2016 Conference on Financial Cryptography and Data Security; Christ Church, Barbados: Springer; 2016. p. 142–157.
  • Seuken S, Parkes DC. Sybil-proof accounting mechanisms with transitive trust. In: Proceedings of the 2014 International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multi-Agent Systems; Paris, France: ACM; 2014. p. 205–212.
  • Yu H, Kaminsky M, Gibbons PB, et al. SybilGuard. ACM SIGCOMM Comput Commun Rev. 2006 Aug;36(4):267–278. doi: 10.1145/1151659.1159945
  • Seuken S, Parkes D. On the Sybil-proofness of accounting mechanisms. In: Proceedings of the 11th Workshop on the Economics of Networks, Systems and Computation; San Jose (CA), USA; 2011 Jun. Available from: https://netecon.seas.harvard.edu/NetEcon11/Papers/Seuken_netecon11.pdf.
  • Zhang K, Liang X, Lu R, et al. Sybil attacks and their defenses in the internet of things. IEEE Int Things J. 2014 Oct;1(5):372–383. doi: 10.1109/JIOT.2014.2344013
  • Zhang Y, Liu W, Lou W, et al. Location-based compromise-tolerant security mechanisms for wireless sensor networks. IEEE J Sel Areas Commun. 2006 Feb;24(2):247–260. doi: 10.1109/JSAC.2005.861382
  • Yee B, Tygar JD. Secure coprocessors in electronic commerce applications. In: Proceedings of the 1st USENIX Workshop on Electronic Commerce; New York (NY), USA; 1995. p. 155–170.
  • Gupta S, Sadoghi M. Blockchain transaction processing. In: Sakr S, Zomaya AY, editors. Encyclopedia of big data technologies. Cham, Switzerland: Springer; 2019. p. 366–376.
  • Kuratowski C. Une méthode d'élimination des nombres transfinis des raisonnements mathématiques. Fund Math. 1922;3:76–108. doi: 10.4064/fm-3-1-76-108
  • Zorn M. A remark on method in transfinite algebra. Bull Amer Math Soc. 1935 Oct;41(10):667–670. doi: 10.1090/bull/1935-41-10
  • Paulauskas N, Garsva E. Computer system attack classification. Elektron Elektrotech. 2006;66(2):84–87.
  • Narayanan A, Clark J. Bitcoin's academic pedigree. Queue. 2017 Aug;15(4):20–49. doi: 10.1145/3134434.3136559
  • QuantumMechanic. Proof of stake instead of proof of work; 2011. [cited 2023 Apr 28]. Available from: https://bitcointalk.org/index.php?topic=27787.0.
  • Buterin V. A next generation smart contract & decentralized application platform; 2014. [cited 2023 Apr 28]. Available from: https://blockchainlab.com/pdf/Ethereum_white_paper-a_next_generation_smart_contract_and_decentralized_application_platform-vitalik-buterin.pdf.
  • Kapengut E, Mizrach B. An event study of the Ethereum transition to proof-of-stake. Commodities. 2023 Mar;2(2):96–110. doi: 10.3390/commodities2020006
  • Ethereum Foundation. Proof-of-stake (PoS); 2024. [cited 2024 Feb 24]. Available from: https://ethereum.org/developers/docs/consensus-mechanisms/pos.
  • Ogawa T, Kima H, Miyaho N. Proposal of Proof-of-Lucky-Id (PoL) to solve the problems of PoW and PoS. In: Proceedings of the 2018 International Conference on Internet of Things and Green Computing and Communications and Cyber, Physical and Social Computing and Smart Data; Halifax, Canada: IEEE; 2018 Jul. p. 1212–1218.