415
Views
8
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Current controversies in the management of Graves’ hyperthyroidism

, , &
Pages 159-169 | Received 01 Feb 2020, Accepted 07 Apr 2020, Published online: 21 Apr 2020

References

  • Smith TJ, Hegedus L. Graves’ disease. New Eng J Med. 2016 Oct 20;375(16):1552–1565.
  • Taylor PN, Albrecht D, Scholz A, et al. Global epidemiology of hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2018 May;14(5):301–316. .
  • Nystrom HF, Jansson S, Berg G. Incidence rate and clinical features of hyperthyroidism in a long-term iodine sufficient area of Sweden (Gothenburg) 2003-2005. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2013 May;78(5):768–776.
  • Brandt F, Green A, Hegedüs L, et al. A critical review and meta-analysis of the association between overt hyperthyroidism and mortality. Eur J Endocrinol. 2011 Oct;165(4):491–497.
  • Okosieme OE, Taylor PN, Evans C, et al. Primary therapy of Graves’ disease and cardiovascular morbidity and mortality: a linked-record cohort study. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2019 Apr;7(4):278–287.
  • Okosieme OE, Khan I, Taylor PN. Preconception management of thyroid dysfunction. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2018 Sep;89(3):269–279.
  • Bartalena L, Tanda ML. Clinical practice. Graves’ ophthalmopathy. N Engl J Med. 2009 Mar;360(10):994–1001.
  • Wiersinga WM. Quality of life in Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2012 Jun;26(3):359–370.
  • Burch HB, Wartofsky L. Life-threatening thyrotoxicosis. Thyroid storm. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 1993 Jun; 22(2):263–277.
  • Burch HB, Cooper DS. Management of Graves disease: a review. Jama. 2015 Dec 15;314(23):2544–2554.
  • Vaidya B, Pearce SH. Diagnosis and management of thyrotoxicosis. BMJ. 2014;349:g5128.
  • Boelaert K, Torlinska B, Holder RL, et al. Older subjects with hyperthyroidism present with a paucity of symptoms and signs: a large cross-sectional study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010 Jun;95(6):2715–2726.
  • Okosieme OE, Lazarus JH. Important considerations in the management of Graves’ disease in pregnant women. Expert Rev Clin Immunol. 2015;11(8):947–957.
  • Autilio C, Morelli R, Locantore P, et al. Stimulating TSH receptor autoantibodies immunoassay: analytical evaluation and clinical performance in Graves’ disease. Ann Clin Biochem. 2018 Jan;55(1):172–177.
  • Tozzoli R, Bagnasco M, Giavarina D, et al. TSH receptor autoantibody immunoassay in patients with Graves’ disease: improvement of diagnostic accuracy over different generations of methods. Systematic review and meta-analysis. Autoimmunity Rev. 2012;Dec;12(2):107–113.
  • McKenzie JM, Zakarija M. Fetal and neonatal hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism due to maternal TSH receptor antibodies. Thyroid. 1992 Summer;2(2):155–159.
  • Scappaticcio L, Trimboli P, Keller F, et al. Diagnostic testing for Graves’ or non-Graves’ hyperthyroidism: A comparison of two thyrotropin receptor antibody immunoassays with thyroid scintigraphy and ultrasonography. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2020 Feb;92(2):169–178.
  • McKee A, Peyerl F. TSI assay utilization: impact on costs of Graves’ hyperthyroidism diagnosis. Am J Manag Care. 2012;18:e1e14. United States.
  • Okosieme OE, Chan D, Price SA, et al. The utility of radioiodine uptake and thyroid scintigraphy in the diagnosis and management of hyperthyroidism. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2010 Jan;72(1):122–127.
  • Kahaly GJ, Bartalena L, Hegedüs L, et al., European thyroid association guideline for the management of Graves’ hyperthyroidism. Eur Thyroid J. 2018;7(4):167–186.
  • Burch HB, Burman KD, Cooper DSA. 2011 survey of clinical practice patterns in the management of Graves’ disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2012 Dec;97(12):4549–4558.
  • Bartalena L, Burch HB, Burman KD, et al. A 2013 European survey of clinical practice patterns in the management of Graves’ disease. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2016 Jan;84(1):115–120.
  • Beshyah SA, Khalil AB, Sherif IH, et al. A survey of clinical practice patterns in management of Graves disease in the Middle East and North Africa. Endocr Pract. 2017 Mar;23(3):299–308.
  • Vaidya B, Williams GR, Abraham P, et al. Radioiodine treatment for benign thyroid disorders: results of a nationwide survey of UK endocrinologists. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2008 May;68(5):814–820.
  • Cox SC, Tamatea JA, Conaglen JV, et al. The management of Graves’ disease in New Zealand 2014. N Z Med J. 2016;129(1436):10–24.
  • Negro R, Attanasio R, Grimaldi F, et al. A 2015 Italian survey of clinical practice patterns in the management of Graves’ disease: comparison with European and North American Surveys. Eur Thyroid J. 2016 Jul;5(2):112–119.
  • Brito JP, Schilz S, Singh Ospina N, et al. Antithyroid drugs-the most common treatment for Graves’ disease in the United States: a nationwide population-based study. Thyroid. 2016 Aug;26(8):1144–1145.
  • Sjolin G, Holmberg M, Torring O, et al. The long-term outcome of treatment for Graves’ hyperthyroidism. Thyroid. 2019 Nov;29(11):1545–1557.
  • Okosieme OE, Lazarus JH. Current trends in antithyroid drug treatment of Graves’ disease. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2016 Oct;17(15):2005–2017.
  • Ross DS. Radioiodine therapy for hyperthyroidism. N Engl J Med. 2011 Feb;364(6):542–550.
  • Donovan PJ, McLeod DS, Little R, et al. Cost-utility analysis comparing radioactive iodine, anti-thyroid drugs and total thyroidectomy for primary treatment of Graves’ disease. Eur J Endocrinol. 2016 Dec;175(6):595–603.
  • Törring O, Tallstedt L, Wallin G, et al. Graves’ hyperthyroidism: treatment with antithyroid drugs, surgery, or radioiodine–a prospective, randomized study. Thyroid study group. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1996 Aug;81(8):2986–2993.
  • Abraham-Nordling M, Törring O, Hamberger B, et al. Graves’ disease: a long-term quality-of-life follow up of patients randomized to treatment with antithyroid drugs, radioiodine, or surgery. Thyroid. 2005 Nov;15(11):1279–1286.
  • Hookham J, Truran P, Allahabadia A, et al. Patients’ perceptions and views of surgery and radioiodine ablation in the definitive management of Graves’ disease. Postgrad Med J. 2017 May;93(1099):266–270.
  • Franklyn JA, Maisonneuve P, Sheppard MC, et al. Mortality after the treatment of hyperthyroidism with radioactive iodine. N Engl J Med. 1998 Mar;338(11):712–718.
  • Metso S, Jaatinen P, Huhtala H, et al. Increased cardiovascular and cancer mortality after radioiodine treatment for hyperthyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007 Jun;92(6):2190–2196.
  • Boelaert K, Maisonneuve P, Torlinska B, et al. Comparison of mortality in hyperthyroidism during periods of treatment with thionamides and after radioiodine. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013 May;98(5):1869–1882.
  • Giesecke P, Frykman V, Wallin G, et al. All-cause and cardiovascular mortality risk after surgery versus radioiodine treatment for hyperthyroidism. Br J Surg. 2018 February;105(3):279–286.
  • Essi R, Saara M, Heini H, et al. Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality after treatment of hyperthyroidism with either radioactive iodine or thyroidectomy. Thyroid. 2018 September;28(9):1111–1120.
  • Lillevang-Johansen M, Abrahamsen B, Jorgensen HL, et al. Duration of hyperthyroidism and lack of sufficient treatment are associated with increased cardiovascular risk. Thyroid. 2019 March;29(3):332–340.
  • Lillevang-Johansen M, Abrahamsen B, Jorgensen HL, et al. Excess mortality in treated and untreated hyperthyroidism is related to cumulative periods of low serum TSH. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2017 July 1;102(7):2301–2309.
  • Kitahara CM, Berrington de Gonzalez A, Bouville A, et al. Association of radioactive iodine treatment with cancer mortality in patients with hyperthyroidism. JAMA Intern Med. 2019 July 1;179(8):1034–1042.
  • Ron E, Doody MM, Becker DV, et al. Cancer mortality following treatment for adult hyperthyroidism. Cooperative thyrotoxicosis therapy follow-up study group. Jama. 1998 July 22-29;280(4):347–355.
  • Franklyn JA, Maisonneuve P, Sheppard M, et al. Cancer incidence and mortality after radioiodine treatment for hyperthyroidism: a population-based cohort study. Lancet. 1999 June 19;353(9170):2111–2115.
  • Gronich N, Lavi I, Rennert G, et al. Cancer risk after radioactive iodine treatment for hyperthyroidism: a cohort study. Thyroid. 2020 Feb;30(2):243–250.
  • Tulchinsky M, Brill AB. Spotlight on the association of radioactive iodine treatment with cancer mortality in patients with hyperthyroidism is keeping the highest risk from antithyroid drugs in the blind spot. Clin Nucl Med. 2019 October;44(10):789–791.
  • Grady EE, Zukotynski K, Greenspan BS. Safety of the use of radioactive iodine in patients with hyperthyroidism. JAMA Intern Med. 2019 December 1;179(12):1738–1739.
  • Taylor PN, Okosieme OE, Chatterjee K, et al. Joint statement from the society for endocrinology and the British thyroid association regarding ‘association of radioactive iodine treatment with cancer mortality in patients with hyperthyroidism’. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2020 March;92(3):266–267.
  • NICE. thyroid disease guidelines: national institute of health and care excellence; 2019. [Published 2020 January 27; cited 2019 November 16]. Available from: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/indevelopment/gid-ng10074/documents
  • Cooper DS. Antithyroid drugs. N Engl J Med. 2005 March;352(9):905–917.
  • Vaidya B, Wright A, Shuttleworth J, et al. Block & replace regime versus titration regime of antithyroid drugs for the treatment of Graves’ disease: a retrospective observational study. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2014 October;81(4):610–613.
  • Rotondi M, Molteni M, Leporati P, et al. Autoimmune thyroid diseases in patients treated with alemtuzumab for multiple sclerosis: an example of selective anti-TSH-receptor immune response. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2017;8:254.
  • Muller I, Moran C, Lecumberri B, et al. 2019 European thyroid association guidelines on the management of thyroid dysfunction following immune reconstitution therapy. Eur Thyroid J. 2019 July;8(4):173–185.
  • Hashizume K, Ichikawa K, Sakurai A, et al. Administration of thyroxine in treated Graves’ disease. Effects on the level of antibodies to thyroid-stimulating hormone receptors and on the risk of recurrence of hyperthyroidism. N Engl J Med. 1991 April 4;324(14):947–953.
  • McIver B, Rae P, Beckett G, et al. Lack of effect of thyroxine in patients with Graves’ hyperthyroidism who are treated with an antithyroid drug. N Engl J Med. 1996 January 25;334(4):220–224.
  • Abraham P, Avenell A, McGeoch SC, et al. Antithyroid drug regimen for treating Graves’ hyperthyroidism. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (Online). 2010;(1):CD003420.
  • Walsh JP. Management of Graves’ disease in Australia. Aust N Z J Med. 2000 Oct; 30(5):559–566.
  • Goichot B, Bouee S, Castello-Bridoux C, et al. Survey of clinical practice patterns in the management of 992 hyperthyroid patients in France. Eur Thyroid J. 2017 July;6(3):152–159.
  • Ross DS, Burch HB, Cooper DS, et al. 2016 American thyroid association guidelines for diagnosis and management of hyperthyroidism and other causes of thyrotoxicosis. Thyroid. 2016 October;26(10):1343–1421.
  • Konishi T, Okamoto Y, Ueda M, et al. Drug discontinuation after treatment with minimum maintenance dose of an antithyroid drug in Graves’ disease: a retrospective study on effects of treatment duration with minimum maintenance dose on lasting remission. Endocr J. 2011;58(2):95–100.
  • Allannic H, Fauchet R, Orgiazzi J, et al. Antithyroid drugs and Graves’ disease: a prospective randomized evaluation of the efficacy of treatment duration. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1990 March;70(3):675–679.
  • Azizi F, Malboosbaf R. Long-term antithyroid drug treatment: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Thyroid. 2017 October;27(10):1223–1231.
  • Laurberg P, Berman DC, Andersen S, et al. Sustained control of Graves’ hyperthyroidism during long-term low-dose antithyroid drug therapy of patients with severe Graves’ orbitopathy. Thyroid. 2011 September;21(9):951–956.
  • Feldt-Rasmussen U, Schleusener H, Carayon P. Meta-analysis evaluation of the impact of thyrotropin receptor antibodies on long term remission after medical therapy of Graves’ disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1994 January;78(1):98–102.
  • Momotani N, Noh JY, Ishikawa N, et al. Effects of propylthiouracil and methimazole on fetal thyroid status in mothers with Graves’ hyperthyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1997 November;82(11):3633–3636.
  • Cooper DS, Rivkees SA. Putting propylthiouracil in perspective. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009;94(6):1881–1882.
  • Taylor PN, Vaidya B. Side effects of anti-thyroid drugs and their impact on the choice of treatment for thyrotoxicosis in pregnancy. Eur Thyroid J. 2012;1:176–185. Switzerland.
  • Andersen SL, Olsen J, Wu CS, et al. Birth defects after early pregnancy use of antithyroid drugs: a Danish nationwide study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013 November;98(11):4373–4381.
  • Clementi M, Di Gianantonio E, Pelo E, et al. Methimazole embryopathy: delineation of the phenotype. Am J Med Genet. 1999;83(1):43–46.
  • Andersen SL, Knosgaard L, Olsen J, et al. Maternal thyroid function, use of antithyroid drugs in early pregnancy, and Birth defects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2019 December 1;104(12):6040–6048.
  • Seo GH, Kim TH, Chung JH. Antithyroid drugs and congenital malformations: a nationwide Korean cohort study. Ann Intern Med. 2018 March 20;168(6):405–413.
  • Yoshihara A, Noh J, Yamaguchi T, et al. Treatment of graves’ disease with antithyroid drugs in the first trimester of pregnancy and the prevalence of congenital malformation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2012;97:2396–2403. United States.
  • Andersen SL, Olsen J, Wu CS, et al. Severity of birth defects after propylthiouracil exposure in early pregnancy. Thyroid. 2014 October;24(10):1533–1540.
  • Medicines and healthcare products regulatory agency. Carbimazole: risk of acute pancreatitis; 2019. [cited 2019 December 16]. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/drug-safety-update/carbimazole-risk-of-acute-pancreatitis
  • Alexander EK, Pearce EN, Brent GA, et al. 2017 guidelines of the american thyroid association for the diagnosis and management of thyroid disease during pregnancy and the postpartum. Thyroid. 2017 March;27(3):315–389.
  • Tonacchera M, Chiovato L, Bartalena L, et al. Treatment of Graves’ hyperthyroidism with thionamides: a position paper on indications and safety in pregnancy. J Endocrinol Invest. 2020 February;43(2):257–265.
  • Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency. Carbimazole: increased risk of congenital malformations; strengthened advice on contraception; 2019 [Published 2020 January 27; cited 2019 December 16]. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/drug-safety-update/carbimazole-increased-risk-of-congenital-malformations-strengthened-advice-on-contraception
  • Croce L, Di Dalmazi G, Orsolini F, et al. Graves‘ disease and the post-partum period: an intriguing relationship. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2019;10:853.
  • Rotondi M, Capelli V, Coperchini F, et al. Post-partum and non-post-partum relapsing Graves’ hyperthyroidism display different response to anti-thyroid drugs. Eur J Endocrinol. 2018 June;178(6):589–594.
  • Bonnema SJ, Bennedbaek FN, Veje A, et al. Propylthiouracil before 131I therapy of hyperthyroid diseases: effect on cure rate evaluated by a randomized clinical trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004 Sep;89(9):4439–4444.
  • Tuttle RM, Patience T, Budd S. Treatment with propylthiouracil before radioactive iodine therapy is associated with a higher treatment failure rate than therapy with radioactive iodine alone in Graves’ disease. Thyroid. 1995 Aug;5(4):243–247.
  • Andrade VA, Gross JL, Maia AL. The effect of methimazole pretreatment on the efficacy of radioactive iodine therapy in Graves’ hyperthyroidism: one-year follow-up of a prospective, randomized study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001 August;86(8):3488–3493.
  • Braga M, Walpert N, Burch HB, et al. The effect of methimazole on cure rates after radioiodine treatment for Graves’ hyperthyroidism: a randomized clinical trial. Thyroid. 2002 February;12(2):135–139.
  • Walter MA, Briel M, Christ-Crain M, et al. Effects of antithyroid drugs on radioiodine treatment: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ. 2007 March 10;334(7592):514.
  • Bartalena L, Bogazzi F, Pinchera A, et al. Treatment with thionamides before radioiodine therapy for hyperthyroidism: yes or no? J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005 February;90(2):1256. author reply 1256-7.
  • Imseis RE, Vanmiddlesworth L, Massie JD, et al. Pretreatment with propylthiouracil but not methimazole reduces the therapeutic efficacy of iodine-131 in hyperthyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1998 February;83(2):685–687.
  • Wilson R, McKillop JH, Buchanan LM, et al. The effect of carbimazole therapy on interleukin 2, interleukin 2 receptors and free radicals. Autoimmunity. 1990;8(1):3–7.
  • Sisson JC, Avram AM, Rubello D, et al. Radioiodine treatment of hyperthyroidism: fixed or calculated doses; intelligent design or science? Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2007 Jul;34(7):1129–1130.
  • Franklyn JA. What is the role of radioiodine uptake measurement and thyroid scintigraphy in the diagnosis and management of hyperthyroidism? Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2010 January;72(1):11–12.
  • Santos RB, Romaldini JH, Ward LS. A randomized controlled trial to evaluate the effectiveness of 2 regimens of fixed iodine ((1)(3)(1)I) doses for Graves disease treatment. Clin Nucl Med. 2012 March;37(3):241–244.
  • Leslie WD, Ward L, Salamon EA, et al. A randomized comparison of radioiodine doses in Graves’ hyperthyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003 March;88(3):978–983.
  • Metso S, Jaatinen P, Huhtala H, et al. Long-term follow-up study of radioiodine treatment of hyperthyroidism. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2004 November;61(5):641–648.
  • Canto AU, Dominguez PN, Jimeno CA, et al. Comparison of fixed versus calculated activity of radioiodine for the treatment of Graves disease in adults. Endocrinol Metab (Seoul). 2016 March;31(1):168–173.
  • Jarlov AE, Hegedus L, Kristensen LO, et al. Is calculation of the dose in radioiodine therapy of hyperthyroidism worth while? Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1995 September;43(3):325–329.
  • Jaiswal AK, Bal C, Damle NA, et al. Comparison of clinical outcome after a fixed dose versus dosimetry-based radioiodine treatment of Graves’ disease: results of a randomized controlled trial in Indian population. Indian J Endocrinol Metab. 2014 September;18(5):648–654.
  • de Rooij A, Vandenbroucke JP, Smit JW, et al. Clinical outcomes after estimated versus calculated activity of radioiodine for the treatment of hyperthyroidism: systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Endocrinol. 2009 November;161(5):771–777.
  • Sosa JA, Bowman HM, Tielsch JM, et al. The importance of surgeon experience for clinical and economic outcomes from thyroidectomy. Ann Surg. 1998;228(3):320–330.
  • Escobar-Jiménez F, Férnandez-Soto ML, Luna-López V, et al. Trends in diagnostic and therapeutic criteria in Graves’ disease in the last 10 years. Postgrad Med J. 2000;76(896):340–344.
  • Feroci F, Rettori M, Borrelli A, et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of total thyroidectomy versus bilateral subtotal thyroidectomy for Graves’ disease. Surgery. 2014;155(3):529–540.
  • Pearce SHS, Dayan C, Wraith DC, et al. Antigen-specific immunotherapy with thyrotropin receptor peptides in Graves’ hyperthyroidism: a Phase I study. Thyroid. 2019 July;29(7):1003–1011.
  • Neumann S, Place RF, Krieger CC, et al. Future prospects for the treatment of graves’ hyperthyroidism and eye disease. Hormone and metabolic research = Hormon- und Stoffwechselforschung = Hormones et metabolisme. 2015 September;47(10):789–796.
  • Gershengorn MC, Neumann S. Update in TSH receptor agonists and antagonists. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2012 December;97(12):4287–4292.
  • Astwood EB. Landmark article May 8, 1943: treatment of hyperthyroidism with thiourea and thiouracil. By E.B. Astwood. JAMA. 1984 April 6;251(13):1743–1746.
  • Sawin CT, Becker DV. Radioiodine and the treatment of hyperthyroidism: the early history. Thyroid. 1997 April;7(2):163–176.
  • Vos XG, Endert E, Zwinderman AH, et al. Predicting the risk of recurrence before the start of antithyroid drug therapy in patients with Graves’ hyperthyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2016 April;101(4):1381–1389.
  • Masiello E, Veronesi G, Gallo D, et al. Antithyroid drug treatment for Graves’ disease: baseline predictive models of relapse after treatment for a patient-tailored management. J Endocrinol Invest. 2018 December;41(12):1425–1432.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.