Endocrine treatment of transgender individuals: current guidelines and strategies

References

• Zaliznyak M, Bresee C, Garcia M. Age at first experience of gender dysphoria among transgender adults seeking gender-affirming surgery. JAMA Network Open. 2020;3(3):1236.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saraswat A, Weinand JD, Safer JD. Evidence supporting the biologic nature of gender identity. Endocr Pract. 2015 Feb;21(2):199–204.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Safer JD, Tangpricha V. Out of the shadows: it is time to mainstream treatment for transgender patients. Endocr Pract. 2008 March;14(2):248–250.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Steensma TD, Biemond R, de Boer F, et al. Desisting and persisting gender dysphoria after childhood: a qualitative follow-up study. Clin Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2011;16(4):499–516.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Safer JD, Tangpricha V. Care of the transgender patient. Ann Intern Med. 2019 July 2;171(1):ITC1–ITC16.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lichtenstein M, Stein L, Connolly E, et al. The mount sinai patient-centered preoperative criteria meant to optimize outcomes are less of a barrier to care than WPATH SOC 7 criteria before transgender-specific surgery. Transgend Health. 2020;5:1–7.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Safer J, Tangpricha V. Care of transgender persons. N Engl J Med. 2019 Dec;381:2451–2460.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Libman H, Safer J, Siegel J, et al. Caring for the transgender patient: grand rounds discussion from Beth Israel Deaconess medical center. Ann Intern Med. 2020;172:202–209.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tangpricha V, Safer JD. Transgender men: evaluation and management. Waltham (MA). 2017 July [2020 Apr 1]. [Online]. Available from: https://www.uptodate.com/contents/transgender-men-evaluation-and-management.
   Google Scholar
• Shoskes JJ, Wilson MK, Spinner ML. Pharmacology of testosterone replacement therapy preparations. Transl Androl Urol. 2016 Dec;5(6):824–842.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Byrne M, Nieschlag E. Testosterone replacement therapy in male hypogonadism. J Endocrinol Invest. 2003;26(5):481–489.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edelstein D, Basaria S. Testosterone undecanoate in the treatment of male hypogonadism. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2010 Aug;11(12):2095–2106.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Unger CA. Hormone therapy for transgender patients. Trans Androl Urol. 2016;5(6):877–884.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gorton RN, Erickson-Schroth L. Hormonal and surgical treatment options for transgender men (female-to-male). Psychiatr Clin North Am. 2017;40(1):79–97.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Defreyne J, Vanwonterghem Y, Collet S. et al. Vaginal bleeding and spotting in transgender men after initiation of testosterone therapy: A prospective cohort study (ENIGI). Int J Transgender Health. 2020;21(2):163–175.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Giltay EJ, Gooren LJ. Effects of sex steroid deprivation/administration on hair growth and skin sebum production in transsexual males and females. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2000;85(8):2913–2921.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wierckx K, Mueller S, Weyers S, et al. Long-term evaluation of cross-sex hormone treatment in transsexual persons. J Sex Med. 2012 Oct;9(10):2641–2651.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bultynck C, Pas C, Defreyne J, et al. Self-perception of voice in transgender persons during cross-sex hormone therapy. Laryngoscope. 2017;127(12):2796–2804.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fisher A, Castellini G, Ristori J, et al. Cross-sex hormone treatment and psychobiological changes in transsexual persons: two-year follow-up data. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2016;101(11):4260–4269.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Irwig MS. Testosterone therapy for transgender men. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2017 Apr;5(4):301–311.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Costantino A, Cerpolini S, Alvisi S, et al. A prospective study on sexual function and mood in female-to-male transsexuals during testosterone administration and after sex reassignment surgery. J Sex Marital Ther. 2013;39(4):321–335.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klaver M, de Blok C, Wiepjes C, et al. Changes in regional body fat, lean body mass and body shape in trans persons using cross-sex hormonal therapy: results from a multicenter prospective study. Eur J Endocrinol. 2018;178(2):163–171.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gooren LJ. Management of female-to-male transgender persons: medical and surgical management, life expectancy. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes. 2014 Jun;21(3):233–238.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Van Renterghem S, Van Dorpe J, Monstrey S, et al. Routine histopathological examination after female-to-male gender-confirming mastectomy. Br J Surg. 2018;105(7):885–892.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slagter M, Gooren L, Scorilas A, et al. Effects of long-term androgen administration on breast tissue of female-to-male transsexuals. J Histochem Cytochem. 2006;54(8):905–910.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grynberg M, Fanchin R, Dubost G, et al. Histology of genital tract and breast tissue after long-term testosterone administration in a female-to-male transsexual population. Reprod Biomed Online. 2010;20(4):553–558.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldstein Z, Corneil T, Greene D. When gender identity doesn’t equal sex recorded at birth: the role of the laboratory in providing effective healthcare to the transgender community. Clin Chem. 2017 Aug;63(8):1342–1352.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Defreyne J, Vantomme B, Van Caenegem E, et al. Prospective evaluation of hematocrit in gender-affirming hormone treatment: results from European network for the investigation of gender incongruence. Andrology. 2018 May;6(3):446–454.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greene D, McPherson G, Rongitsch J, et al. Hematology reference intervals for transgender adults on stable hormone therapy. Clin Chim Acta. 2019;492:84–90.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Velzen D, Paldino A, Klaver M, et al. Cardiometabolic effects of testosterone in transmen and estrogen plus cyproterone acetate in transwomen. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2019;104(6):1937–1947.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gooren LJ, Giltay EJ. Men and women, so different, so similar: observations from cross-sex hormone treatment of transsexual subjects. Andrologia. 2014 Jun;46(5):570–575.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asscheman H, T’Sjoen G, Lemaire A, et al. Venous thrombo-embolism as a complication of cross-sex hormone treatment of male-to-female transsexual subjects: a review. Andrologia. 2014 Sep;46(7):791–795.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhasin S, Cunningham GR, Hayes FJ, et al. Testosterone therapy in adult men with androgen deficiency syndromes: an endocrine society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91(6):1995–2010.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wierckx K, Elaut E, Van Hoorde B, et al. Sexual desire in trans persons: associations with sex reassignment treatment. J Sex Med. 2014;11(1):107–118.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weinand JD, Safer JD. Hormone therapy in transgender adults is safe with provider supervision: a review of hormone therapy sequelae for transgender individuals. J Clin Transl Endocrinol. 2015;2(2):55–60.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hembree WC, Cohen-Kettenis PT, Gooren L. Endocrine treatment of gender-dysphoric/gender-incongruent persons: an endocrine society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2017 November;102(11):1–35.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greene D, Schmidt R, Winst G, et al. Reproductive endocrinology reference intervals for transgender women on stable hormone therapy. J Appl Lab Med. 2020;28:1–12.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gooren LJ, Giltay EJ, Bunck MC. Long-term treatment of transsexuals with cross-sex hormones: extensive personal expe- rience. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008;93(1):19–25.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vinogradova Y, Coupland C, Hippisley-Cox J. Use of hormone replacement therapy and risk of ve- nous thromboembolism: nested case-control studies using the QResearch and CPRD databases. BMJ. 2019 Jan;364:K4810.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meriggiola MC, Gava G. Endocrine care of transpeople part I. A review of cross-sex hormonal treatments, outcomes and adverse effects in transmen. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2015;83(5):597–606.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prior JC, Vigna YM, Watson D. Spironolactone with physio- logical female steroids for presurgical therapy of male-to-female transsexualism. Arch Sex Behav. 1989;18(1):49–57.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dittrich R, Binder H, Cupisti S, et al. Endocrine treatment of male-to-female transsexuals using gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes. 2005;113(10):586–592.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tangpricha V, Ducharme SH, Barber TW, et al. Endocrinologic treatment of gender identity disorders. Endocr Pract. 2003;9(1):12–21.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Moore E, Wisniewski A, Dobs A. Endocrine treat- ment of transsexual people: a review of treat- ment regimens, outcomes, and adverse effects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;88(8):3467–3473.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wierckx K, Gooren L, T’Sjoen G. Clinical review: breast development in trans women receiving cross-sex hormones. J Sex Med. 2014 May;11(5):1240–1247.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Orentreich N, Durr NP. Proceedings: mammogenesis in transsexuals. J Invest Dermatol. 1974 Jul;63(1):142–146.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manson JE, Chlebowski RT, Stefanick ML, et al. Menopausal hormone therapy and health out- comes during the intervention and extended poststopping phases of the Women’s Health Initiative randomized trials. JAMA. 2013;310:1353–1368.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Blok C, Klaver M, Fisher A, et al. Breast development in transwomen after 1 year of cross-sex hormone therapy: results of a prospective multicenter study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2018;103(2):532–538.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Defreyne J, Elaut E, Kreukels B, et al. Sexual desire changes in transgender individuals upon initiation of hormone treatment: results from the longitudinal European network for the investigation of gender incongruence. J Sex Med. 2020;17(4):812–825.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toorians AW, Thomassen MC, Zweegman S, et al. Venous thrombosis and changes of hemostatic variables during cross-sex hormone treat- ment in transsexual people. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;88(12):5723–5729.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lapauw B, Taes Y, Simoens S, et al. Body composition, volumetric and areal bone parameters in male-to-female transsexual persons. Bone. 2008;43(6):1016–1021.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer WJ III, Webb A, Stuart CA, et al. Physical and hormonal evaluation of transsexual patients: a longitudinal study. Arch Sex Behav. 1986;15(12):121–138.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mepham N, Bouman WP, Arcelus J, et al. People with gender dysphoria who self-prescribe cross-sex hormones: prevalence, sources, and side effects knowledge. J Sex Med.N. 2014;11(12):2995–3001.
   Google Scholar
• Reisman T, Goldstein Z, Safer J. A review of breast development in cisgender women and implications for transgender women. Endocr Pract. 2019;25(12):1338–1345.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wierckx K, Elaut E, Declercq E, et al. Prevalence of cardiovascular disease and cancer during cross-sex HRT in a large cohort of trans persons: a case-control study. Eur J Endocrinol. 2013;169(4):471–478.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valenzuela P, Simon J. Nanoparticle delivery for transdermal HRT. Nanonmedicine. 2012 Sept;Suppl. 1:S83–S89.
   Google Scholar
• Goodman M. Are all estrogens created equal? A review of oral vs. transdermal therapy. J Womens Health. 2012;21(2):161–169.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bagot C, Marsh M, Whitehead M, et al. The effect of estrone on thrombin generation may explain the different thrombotic risk between oral and transdermal hormone replacement therapy. J Thromb Haemost. 2010;8(8):1736–1744.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khan J, Schmidt R, Spittal M, et al. Venous thrombotic risk in transgender women undergoing estrogen therapy: a systematic review and metaanalysis. Clin Chem. 2019;65(1):57–66.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts T, Kraft C, French D, et al. Interpreting laboratory results in transgender patients on HRT. Am J Med. 2014;127(2):159–162.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asscheman H, Gooren LJ, Assies J, et al. Prolactin levels and pituitary enlargement in hormone-treated male-to-female transsexuals. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1988;28(6):583–588.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cunha F, Domenice S, Camara V, et al. Diagnosis of prolactinoma in two male-to-female transsexual subjects following high-dose cross-sex hormone therapy. Andrologia. 2015 Aug;47(6):680–684.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gava G, Cerpolini S, Martelli V, et al. Cyproterone acetate vs leuprolide acetate in combination with transdermal oestradiol in transwomen: a comparison of safety and effectiveness. Clin Endocrinol. 2016;85(2):239–246.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fung R, Hellstern-Layefsky M, Tastenhoye C, et al. Differential effects of cyproterone acetate vs spironolactone on serum high-density lipoprotein and prolactin concentrations in the hormonal treatment of transgender women. J Sex Med. 2016;13(11):1765–1772.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Defreyne J, Nota N, Pereira C, et al. Transient elevated serum prolactin in trans women is caused by cyproterone acetate treatment. LGBT Health. 2017;4(5):328–336.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nota N, Dekker M, Klaver M, et al. Prolactin levels during short‐ and long‐term cross‐sex hormone treatment: an observational study in transgender persons. Andrologia. 2017;49(6):e12666.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bisson JR, Chan KJ, Safer JD. Prolactin levels do not rise among transgender women treated with estradiol and spironolactone. Endocr Pract. 2018;24:646–651.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sineath RC, Woodyatt C, Sanchez T, et al. Determinants of and barriers to hormonal and surgical treatment receipt among transgender people. Transgend Health. 2016;1:129–136.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kailas M, Lu HM, Rothman EF, et al. Prevalence and types of gender-affirming surgery among a sample of transgender endocrinology patients prior to state expansion of insurance coverage. Endocr Pract. 2017;23(7):780–786.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berli J, Knudson G, Fraser L, et al. What surgeons need to know about gender confirmation surgery when providing care for transgender individuals: a review. JAMA Surg. 2017;152:394–400.
   Google Scholar
• Pang J, Avanessian B, Kozato A, et al. Venothromboembolism risk and hormone therapy in the transgender surgery patient. In USPATH, Washington, DC; 2019.
   Google Scholar
• Coleman E, Bockting W, Botzer M. Standards of care for the health of transexual, transgender, and gender non-conforming people, Version 7. Int J Transgenderism. 2012 August;13(4):165–232.
   Google Scholar
• Feigerlová E, Pascal V, Ganne‐Devonec M, et al. Fertility desires and reproductive needs of transgender people: challenges and considerations for clinical practice. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2019;91(1):10–21.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Sutter P. Gender reassignment and assisted reproduction: present and future reproductive options for transsexual people. Hum Reprod. 2001;16(4):612–614.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Madina A, Cottrill A, Kay E, et al. Contraceptive beliefs, decision making and care experiences among transmasculine young adults: a qualitative analysis. Perspect Sex Reprod Health. 2020;52(1):7–14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schechter L, Safa B. Introduction to phalloplasty. Clin Plast Surg. 2018;45:387–389.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• W. P. A. o. T. Health. WPATH. 2020 [cited 2020 Mar 25]. [Online]. Available from: https://www.wpath.org/provider/search.
   Google Scholar
• Deebel NA, Morin JP, Autorino R, et al. Prostate cancer in transgender women: incidence, etiopathogenesis, and man- agement challenges. Urology. 2017;110:166–171.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Kesteren P, Asscheman H, Megens J, et al. Mortality and morbidity in transsexual subjects treated with cross-sex hormones. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1997;47:337–342.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Futterweit W. Endocrine therapy of transsexualism and potential complications of long-term treatment. Arch Sex Behav. 1998;27:209–226.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ascha M, Massie J, Morrison S, et al. Outcomes of single stage phalloplasty by pedicled anterolateral thigh flap versus radial forearm free flap in gender confirming surgery. J Urol. 2018;199(1):206–214.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snelgrove J, Jasudavisius A, Rowe B. “Completely out-at-sea” with “two-gender medicine”: A qualitative analysis of physician-side barriers to providing healthcare for transgender patients. BMC Health Serv Res. 2012;12:110.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davidge-Pitts C, Nippoldt T, Danoff A, et al. Transgender health in endocrinology: current status of endocrinology fellowship programs and practicing clinicians. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2017;102(4):1286–1290.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• White W, Brenman S, Paradis E. et al. Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender patient care: medical students’ preparedness and comfort. Teach Learn Am. 2015;27(3):254–263.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flores A, Herman J, Gates G, et al. How many adults identify as transgender in the United States? The Williams Institute. 2016.
   Google Scholar
• Park JA, Safer JD. Clinical exposure to transgender medicine improves students’ preparedness above levels seen with didactic teaching alone: A key addition to the Boston University model for teaching transgender healthcare. Transgend Health. 2018;3(1):10–16.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar