Perspective: the nose and the stomach play a critical role in the NZACE2-Pātari* (modified ACE2) drug treatment project of SARS-CoV-2 infection

References

• Zhou P, Yang XL, Wang XG, et al., A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin. Nature. 2020;579(7798): 270–273.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou F, Yu T, Du R, et al., Clinical course and risk factors for mortality of adult inpatients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet. 2020;395(10229): 1054–1062.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirby T. Evidence mounts on the disproportionate effect of COVID-19 on ethnic minorities. Lancet Respir Med. 2020;8(6):547–548.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abedi V, Olulana O, Avula V, et al. Racial, Economic, and Health Inequality and COVID-19 Infection in the United States. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities. 2020. DOI:10.1007/s40615-020-00833-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Price-Haywood EG, Burton J, Fort D, et al. Mortality among black patients and white patients with covid-19. Epub 2012020 May 2011627 N Engl J Med. 2020;382(26):2534–2543.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, et al., Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet. 2020;395(10223): 497–506.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hou YJ, Okuda K, Edwards CE, et al. SARS-CoV-2 reverse genetics reveals a variable infection gradient in the respiratory tract. Cell. 2020;182(2):429–446.e414.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tai W, He L, Zhang X, et al. Characterization of the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of 2019 novel coronavirus: implication for development of RBD protein as a viral attachment inhibitor and vaccine. Cell Mol Immunol. 2020;17(6):613–620.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoffmann M, Kleine-Weber H, Schroeder S, et al. SARS-CoV-2 cell entry depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and is blocked by a clinically proven protease inhibitor. Cell. 2020;4(20): 30229–30224.
   Google Scholar
• Almario CV, Chey WD, Spiegel BMR. Increased risk of COVID-19 among users of proton pump inhibitors. Am J Gastroenterol. 2020;115(10):1707–1715.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiersinga WJ, Rhodes A, Cheng AC, et al. Pathophysiology, Transmission, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): A Review. JAMA. 2020 Aug 25;324(8):782–793. DOI:10.1001/jama.2020.12839
   Google Scholar
• Baek WK, Sohn SY, Mahgoub A, et al. Review of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2. Cureus. 2020;12(5):e7943.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Almqvist J, Granberg T, Tzortzakakis A, et al. Neurological manifestations of coronavirus infections - a systematic review. Ann Clin Transl Neurol. 2020;7(10):2057–2071.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lo YL. Covid-19, fatigue and dysautonomia. J Med Virol. 2020;93(3). DOI:10.1002/jmv.26552
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Editorial. Facing up to long COVID. Lancet. 2020; 396(10266):1861.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mazza MG, De Lorenzo R, Conte C, et al. Anxiety and depression in COVID-19 survivors: role of inflammatory and clinical predictors. Brain Behav Immun. 2020;89:594–600.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blain H, Rolland Y, Tuaillon E, et al. Efficacy of a test-retest strategy in residents and health care personnel of a nursing home facing a COVID-19 outbreak. J Am Med Dir Assoc. 2020;21(7):933–936.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baker M, Kvalsvig A, Verrall AJ, et al. elimination strategy for the COVID-19 pandemic and what is required to make it work. NZ Med J. 2020;133(1512):10–14.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manners C, Larios Bautista E, Sidoti H, et al. Protective adaptive immunity against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronaviruses 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and implications for vaccines. Cureus. 2020;12(6):e8399.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouayad A. Innate immune evasion by SARS-CoV-2: comparison with SARS-CoV. Rev Med Virol. 2020;30(6):e2135.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bastard P, Rosen LB, Zhang Q, et al. Auto-antibodies against type I IFNs in patients with life-threatening COVID-19. Science. 2020;370(6515):eabd4585. DOI: 10.1126/science.abd4585.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blanco-Melo D, Nilsson-Payant BE, Liu WC, et al. Imbalanced host response to SARS-CoV-2 drives development of COVID-19. Cell. 2020;181(5):1036–1045.e1039. Epub 2020 May 1015.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• The Potential JA. Effect of Novel Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 on NK cells; A perspective on potential therapeutic interventions. Front Immunol. 2020;11:1692. eCollection 02020.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laurence J, Mulvey JJ, Seshadri M, et al. Anti-complement C5 therapy with eculizumab in three cases of critical COVID-19. Clin Immunol. 2020;219:108555. Epub 102020 Aug 108556.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen Z, John Wherry E. T cell responses in patients with COVID-19. Nat Rev Immunol. 2020;20(9):529–536.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watanabe Y, Allen JD, Wrapp D, et al. Site-specific glycan analysis of the SARS-CoV-2 spike. Science. 2020;369(330–333):330–333.
   Google Scholar
• Negro F. Is antibody-dependent enhancement playing a role in COVID-19 pathogenesis? Swiss Med Wkly. 2020;150:w20249. eCollection 22020 Apr 20246.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou Y, Liu Z, Li S, et al. Enhancement versus neutralization by SARS-CoV-2 antibodies from a convalescent donor associates with distinct epitopes on the RBD. Cell Rep. 2021;34(5):108699. Epub 102021 Jan 108612.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boulware DR, Pullen MF, Bangdiwala AS, et al. A randomized trial of hydroxychloroquine as postexposure prophylaxis for covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2020;383(6):517–525.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• RECOVERY Collaborative Group: Dexamethasone in Hospitalized Patients with Covid-19. Preliminary report. N Engl J Med. 2021;384(8):693-704. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa2021436.
   Google Scholar
• Liu Z, VanBlargan LA, Bloyet LM, et al. Identification of SARS-CoV-2 spike mutations that attenuate monoclonal and serum antibody neutralization. Cell Host Microbe. 2021;27(21):00044–00045.
   Google Scholar
• Ameratunga R, Lehnert K, Leung E, et al. Inhaled modified angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as a decoy to mitigate SARS-CoV-2 infection. N Z Med J. 2020;133(1515):112–118.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan KK, Dorosky D, Sharma P, et al. Engineering human ACE2 to optimize binding to the spike protein of SARS coronavirus 2. Science. 2020;369(6508):1261–1265.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monteil V, Kwon H, Prado P, et al. Inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 infections in engineered human tissues using clinical-grade soluble human ACE2. Cell. 2020;181(4):905–913.e7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burgess S, Smith D, Kenyon JC, et al. Lightening the viral load to lessen covid-19 severity. BMJ. 2020;371:m4763.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tsukagoshi H, Shinoda D, Saito M, et al. Relationships between viral load and the clinical course of COVID-19. Viruses 2021;13((2), 304):304.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang W, Xu Y, Gao R, et al. Detection of SARS-CoV-2 in different types of clinical specimens. Jama. 2020;323(18):1843–1844.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zou L, Ruan F, Huang M, et al. SARS-CoV-2 viral load in upper respiratory specimens of infected patients. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(12):1177–1179.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lei C, Qian K, Li T, et al. Neutralization of SARS-CoV-2 spike pseudotyped virus by recombinant ACE2-Ig. Nat Commun.. 2020 Apr 24;11(1):2070 doi: 10.1038/s41467-020-16048-4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang Z, Xiong G, Tsang WC, et al. Nose-to-brain delivery. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2019;370(3):593–601.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gänger S, Schindowski K. Tailoring formulations for intranasal nose-to-brain delivery: a review on architecture, physico-chemical characteristics and mucociliary clearance of the nasal olfactory mucosa. Pharmaceutics 2018;10(3):116.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Song E, Zhang C, Israelow B, et al. Neuroinvasion of SARS-CoV-2 in human and mouse brain. J Exp Med.. 2021 Mar 1;218(3):e20202135. DOI: 10.1084/jem.20202135.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Santos-Morales O, Díaz-Machado A, Jiménez-Rodríguez D, et al. Nasal administration of the neuroprotective candidate NeuroEPO to healthy volunteers: a randomized, parallel, open-label safety study. BMC Neurol. 2017;17(1):129.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sherr JL, Ruedy KJ, Foster NC, et al. Glucagon nasal powder: a promising alternative to intramuscular glucagon in youth with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2016;39(4):555–562. Epub 2016 Feb 2316.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quiralte-Castillo J, Ávila-Castellano MR, Cimbollek S, et al. Nasal ketorolac challenge using acoustic rhinometry in patients with aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease. J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol. 2017;27(3):169–174. Epub 12016 Oct 18119.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chamsi-Pasha MA, Shao Z, Tang WH. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 as a therapeutic target for heart failure. Curr Heart Fail Rep. 2014;11(1):58–63.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Khan A, Benthin C, Zeno B, et al. A pilot clinical trial of recombinant human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 in acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care. 2017;21(1):234.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Miyake S, Ashikari K, Kato S, et al. SARS-CoV-2 prevalence in saliva and gastric and intestinal fluid in patients undergoing gastrointestinal endoscopy in COVID-19 endemic areas: prospective cross-sectional study in Japan. Dig Endosc. 2021;6(10):13945.
   Google Scholar
• Chan KH, Sridhar S, Zhang RR, et al. Factors affecting stability and infectivity of SARS-CoV-2. J Hosp Infect. 2020;106(2):226–231.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Almario CV, Chey WD, Spiegel BMR. Increased risk of COVID-19 among users of proton pump inhibitors. Am J Gastroenterol. 2020;115(10):1707-1715. DOI: 10.14309/ajg.0000000000000798.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee SW, Ha EK, Yeniova A, et al. Severe clinical outcomes of COVID-19 associated with proton pump inhibitors: a nationwide cohort study with propensity score matching. Gut.2020;gutjnl-2020-323672. doi: 10.1136/gutjnl-2020-323672
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pamplona J, Solano R, Soler C, et al. Epidemiological approximation of the enteric manifestation and possible fecal-oral transmission in COVID-19: a preliminary systematic review. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2020;17(10):0000000000001934.
   Google Scholar
• Lin L, Jiang X, Zhang Z, et al. Gastrointestinal symptoms of 95 cases with SARS-CoV-2 infection. Gut 2020;69(6):997–1001. Epub 322020 Apr 321012.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao Y, Liang W, Luo Y, et al. Personal protective equipment protecting healthcare workers in the Chinese epicentre of COVID-19. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2020;23(20): 30437-30437.
   Google Scholar
• Heinzerling A, Stuckey MJ, Scheuer T, et al. Transmission of COVID-19 to health care personnel during exposures to a hospitalized patient - solano county, california, february 2020. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2020;69(15):472–476.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham R, Masters-Awatere B. Experiences of māori of Aotearoa New Zealand’s public health system: a systematic review of two decades of published qualitative research. Aust N Z J Public Health. 2020;44(3):193–200.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steyn N, Binny RN, Hannah K, et al. Estimated inequities in COVID-19 infection fatality rates by ethnicity for Aotearoa New Zealand. NZ Med J. 2020;133(1520):28–39.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lambert PH, Ambrosino DM, Andersen SR, et al. Consensus summary report for CEPI/BC March 12- 13, 2020 meeting: assessment of risk of disease enhancement with COVID-19 vaccines. Vaccine. 2020;38(31):4783–4791.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ameratunga R, Gillis D, Gold M, et al. Evidence refuting the existence of autoimmune/autoinflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants (ASIA). J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2017;5(6):1551–1555.e1551.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ameratunga R, Langguth D, Perspective: HD. Scientific and ethical concerns pertaining to animal models of autoimmune/autoinflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants (ASIA). Autoimmun Rev. 2018;17(5):435–439.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elwood JM, Ameratunga R. Autoimmune diseases after hepatitis B immunization in adults: literature review and meta-analysis, with reference to ‘autoimmune/autoinflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants’ (ASIA). Vaccine. 2018;36(38):5796–5802.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ameratunga R, Ahn Y, Steele R, et al. The natural history of untreated primary hypogammaglobulinemia in adults: implications for the diagnosis and treatment of common variable immunodeficiency disorders (CVID). Front Immunol. 2019;10(1541). DOI:10.3389/fimmu.2019.01541
   Google Scholar
• Ameratunga R, Allan C, Woon ST. Defining common variable immunodeficiency disorders in 2020. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2020;40(3):403–420.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ameratunga R, Brewerton M, Slade C, et al. Comparison of diagnostic criteria for common variable immunodeficiency disorder. Front Immunol. 2014;5(415). DOI:10.3389/fimmu.2014.00415
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ameratunga R, Lederman HM, Sullivan KE, et al. Defective antigen-induced lymphocyte proliferation in the X-linked hyper-IgM syndrome. J Pediatr. 1997;131(1 Pt 1):147–150.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar