References
- Ahmad, P. (2022). Digital nationalism as an emergent subfield of nationalism studies. The state of the field and key issues. National Identities, 24(4), 307–317. https://doi.org/10.1080/14608944.2022.2050196
- Ajuntament de Barcelona. (2016). Barcelona ciutat digital. A road map towards technological sovereignty. https://bcnroc.ajuntament.barcelona.cat/jspui/bitstream/11703/99399/1/BCN_Digitaleng.pdf
- Ajuntament de Barcelona. (2019). 2015–2019 Report: Barcelona digital city. Putting technology at the service of people. https://ajuntament.barcelona.cat/digital/sites/default/files/pla_barcelona_digital_city_in.pdf
- Ajuntament de Barcelona. (2020). Government measure concerning the municipal strategy of algorithms and data for the ethical impulse of artificial intelligence. https://ajuntament.barcelona.cat/digital/sites/default/files/mesura_de_govern_intel_ligencia_artificial_castella_0.pdf
- Aldecoa, F., & Keating, M. (1999). Paradiplomacy in action: The foreign relations of subnational governments. Frank Cass Publishers.
- Alexander, C., & Royo i Marine, A. (2020). Prohibited sub-state public diplomacy: The attempt to dissolve Catalonia’s DIPLOCAT. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 16(3), 238–250. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41254-019-00151-5
- Anderson, B. (2006). Imagined communities. Verso.
- Anholt, S. (2008). From nation branding to competitive identity – The role of brand management as a component of national policy. In K. Dinnie (Ed.), Nation branding: Concepts, issues, practice (pp. 22–23). Butterworth-Heinemann.
- Bell, D. (1976). The cultural contradictions of capitalism. Basic Books.
- Bernat, I., & Whyte, D. (2020). Postfascism in Spain: The struggle for Catalonia. Critical Sociology, 46(4-5), 761–776. https://doi.org/10.1177/0896920519867132
- Beydoun, K. A. (2022). The new state of surveillance: Societies of subjugation. Washington and Lee Law Review, 79, 769.
- Bradford, A. (2020). The Brussels effect: How the European Union rules the world. Oxford University Press.
- Cancela, E., & Goikoetxea, J. (2023). Spanish fake sovereignty: From privatizing the nation-state to a digital colony. Ethnopolitics. https://doi.org/10.1080/17449057.2023.2275882
- Cancela, E., & Jimenez, A. (2022). Europe’s third way to technological sovereignty. A critique. Transform Europe. https://www.transform-network.net/fileadmin/user_upload/europe__s_thrid_way_to_techniclogical_sovereignty._a_critique__englisch__pdf_.pdf
- Carroll, S. R., Rodriguez-Lonebear, D., & Martinez, A. (2019). Indigenous data governance: Strategies from United States native nations. Data Science Journal, 18(1), Article 31. https://doi.org/10.5334/dsj-2019-031
- Catalan Dao. (2022). Manifest de la CatalanDAO v1. Web. Retrieved September 5, 2022, from https://catalandao.cat/
- Chayka, K. (2022, March 3). Watching the world’s ‘first TikTok war’. The New Yorker.
- Couldry, N., & Mejias, U. A. (2020). The costs of connection: How data are colonizing human life and appropriating it for capitalism. Stanford University Press.
- Díez, A., Pueyo, J., & Cué, C. (2019, October 21). Sánchez aprueba el decreto para acabar con la ‘república digital catalana’. El País. https://elpais.com/politica/2019/10/31/actualidad/1572509579_946126.html
- Diplocat [CataloniaPD]. (2022, June 7). @Google opens new headquarters in Barcelona, Catalonia! [Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/CataloniaPD/status/1534079058870411264
- Diplocat. (n.d.). Statutes. https://diplocat.cat/en/about-us/statutes/
- El Periodico, Barcelona Newsroom. (2021, April 7). Puigdemont impulsa un ‘DNI catalán’ de pago que no permite trámites con la Generalitat. El Periodico. https://www.elperiodico.com/es/politica/20210406/puigdemont-dni-catalan-consell-republica-11638818
- Estonia. (n.d.). We have built a digital society and we can show you how [web page]. Retrieved September 2 from https://e-estonia.com/
- European Commission. (2022, June 27). Antitrust: Commission fines Google €2.42 billion for abusing dominance as search engine by giving illegal advantage to own comparison shopping service. Press release. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_17_1784
- European Parliament STOA. (2021). Key enabling technologies for Europe’s technological sovereignty. European Parliament. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2021/697184/EPRS_STU(2021)697184_EN.pdf
- Fan, Y. (2006). Branding the nation: What is being branded? Journal of Vacation Marketing, 12(1), 5–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/1356766706056633
- Fuchs, C. (2015). Culture and economy in the age of social media. Routledge.
- García, C. (2021). When an efficient use of strategic communication (public diplomacy and public relations) to internationalize a domestic conflict is not enough to gain international political support: The Catalan case (2012–2017). International Journal of Strategic Communication, 15(4), 293–309. https://doi.org/10.1080/1553118X.2021.1910514
- Generalitat de Catalunya. (2017). Plan Director de Sistemas de Información del SISCAT. https://salutweb.gencat.cat/web/.content/_ambits-actuacio/Linies-dactuacio/tic/pdsis/pdsis-es.pdf
- Generalitat de Catalunya. (2019a). Catalonia’s Artificial Intelligence Strategy. https://participa.gencat.cat/uploads/decidim/attachment/file/932/Document-Bases-Estrategia-IA-Catalunya-_ENversion.pdf
- Generalitat de Catalunya. (2019b). l’Estratègia Blockchain de Catalunya. https://politiquesdigitals.gencat.cat/web/.content/00-arbre/economia/blockchain/Estrategia-Blockchain-a-Catalunya.pdf
- Generalitat de Catalunya. (2020, September 7). Benvinguda Fibra Òptica. Benvingut future [Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tis9znh4_SQ&feature=emb_title
- Generalitat de Catalunya. (2021). Versió 2.0Carta catalana per als drets i les responsabilitats digitals. https://politiquesdigitals.gencat.cat/web/.content/00-arbre/ciutadania/drets-responsabilitats-digitals/Carta_v2.pdf
- Gillespie, T. (2017). Platforms are not intermediaries. Georgetown Law Technology Review, 2, 198–216.
- Goikoetxea, J. (2014). Nation and democracy building in contemporary Europe: The reproduction of the Basque demos. Nationalities Papers, 42(1), 145–164. https://doi.org/10.1080/00905992.2013.830600
- Goikoetxea, J. (2017). Privatizing democracy: Global ideals, European politics and Basque territories. Peter Lang.
- Jansen, S. C. (2008). Designer nations: Neo-liberal nation branding – Brand Estonia. Social Identities, 14(1), 121–142. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504630701848721
- Jiménez, A. (2020). The silicon doctrine. tripleC: Communication, Capitalism & Critique. Open Access Journal for a Global Sustainable Information Society, 18(1), 322–336. https://doi.org/10.31269/triplec.v18i1.1147
- Jiménez, A., & Oleson, J. C. (2022). The crimes of digital capitalism. Mitchell Hamline Law Review, 48(4), 972–1018.
- Johnson, M. A. (2018). Culture as soft power: Digital branding by Catalonia, the Basque Country and Scotland. Catalan Journal of Communication & Cultural Studies, 10(1), 115–123. https://doi.org/10.1386/cjcs.10.1.115_1
- Kaneva, N. (2011). Nation branding: Toward an agenda for critical research. International Journal of Communication, 5, Article 25.
- Kaneva, N. (2017). The branded national imagination and its limits: Insights from the postsocialist experience. The Strategic Review for Southern Africa, 39(1), 116–138.
- Kukutai, T., & Cormack, D. (2020). “Pushing the space”: Data sovereignty and self-determination in Aotearoa NZ. In M. Walter, T. Kukutai, S. R. Carroll, & D. Rodriguez-Lonebear (Eds.), Indigenous data sovereignty and policy (pp. 21–35). Routledge.
- La Vanguardia. (2021, April 7). Puigdemont lanza un DNI digital catalán a 12 euros. La Vanguardia. https://www.lavanguardia.com/politica/20210406/6632096/consell-per-la-republica-crea-identidad-digital-puigdemont.html
- Lynch, C. R. (2020). Contesting digital futures: Urban politics, alternative economies, and the movement for technological sovereignty in Barcelona. Antipode, 52(3), 660–680. https://doi.org/10.1111/anti.12522
- Mac, R., Isaac, M., & Frenkel, S. (2022, March 30). How war in Ukraine roiled Facebook and Instagram. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/30/technology/ukraine-russia-facebook-instagram.html
- Matamoros-Fernández, A. (2017). Platformed racism: The mediation and circulation of an Australian race-based controversy on Twitter, Facebook and YouTube. Information, Communication & Society, 20(6), 930–946.
- Mezzadra, S., & Neilson, B. (2019). The politics of operations: Excavating contemporary capitalism. Duke University Press.
- Microsoft. (2022, June 3). La Generalitat y Microsoft firman un protocolo de colaboración en ámbitos prioritarios como la sostenibilidad, el talento digital, la nueva economía del espacio, la salud digital y los servicios de IA basados en lenguaje. Microsoft Newsroom. https://news.microsoft.com/es-es/2022/06/03/la-generalitat-y-microsoft-firman-un-protocolo-de-colaboracion-en-ambitos-prioritarios-como-la-sostenibilidad-el-talento-digital-la-nueva-economia-del-espacio-la-salud-digital-y-los-servicios-de-ia/
- Molins, A. (2019, September 9). Catalunya pone en marcha su propio sistema de identidad digital. La Vanguardia. https://www.lavanguardia.com/edicion-impresa/20190908/47230379596/catalunya-pone-en-marcha-su-propio-sistema-de-identidad-digital.html
- Moscovitz, H. (2021). Projecting the nation(s) in multinational federal systems: International education and nation branding in Canada/Quebec. Publius: The Journal of Federalism, 52(1), 82–106. https://doi.org/10.1093/publius/pjab005
- Narotzky, V. (2009). Selling the nation: Identity and design in 1980s Catalonia. Design Issues, 25(3), 62–75. https://doi.org/10.1162/desi.2009.25.3.62
- Noveck, B. S. (2009). Wiki government: How technology can make government better, democracy stronger, and citizens more powerful. Brookings Institution Press.
- Noveck, B. S. (2017). Rights-based and tech-driven: Open data, freedom of information, and the future of government transparency. Yale Human Rights and Development Law Journal, 19, Article 1.
- Oppermann, M. (2000). Triangulation? A methodological discussion. International Journal of Tourism Research, 2(2), 141–145. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1522-1970(200003/04)2:2<141::AID-JTR217>3.0.CO;2-U
- Order AEC/1229/2017, of December 15 which publishes the Agreement of the Council of Ministers, which provides for the liquidation of the Patronat Catalunya Mon-Public Diplomacy Council of Catalonia (DIPLOCAT) and establishes a liquidating body for this purpose. BOE no. 305, of December 16. https://www.boe.es/diario_boe/txt.php?id=BOE-A-2017-14904
- Poblet, M. (2018). Distributed, privacy-enhancing technologies in the 2017 Catalan referendum on independence: New tactics and models of participatory democracy. First Monday.
- Poell, T., Nieborg, D. B., & Duffy, B. E. (2021). Platforms and cultural production. John Wiley & Sons.
- Pradillo-Caimari, C., & Tarditti, A. D. M. (2022). La subjetivación política en la protesta: Una aproximación psicopolítica al procés catalán. Anuario de Psicología/The UB Journal of Psychology, 52(1), 63–70. https://doi.org/10.1344/ANPSIC2022.52/1.33048
- Pueyo Busquets, J. (2018, October 10). El Govern se apropia del dominio de internet .cat como “estructura de Estado”. El País. https://elpais.com/ccaa/2018/10/09/catalunya/1539110244_940549.html
- Rius Ulldemolins, J., & Zamorano, M. M. (2015). Spain’s nation branding project Marca España and its cultural policy: The economic and political instrumentalization of a homogeneous and simplified cultural image. International Journal of Cultural Policy, 21(1), 20–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/10286632.2013.877456
- Roqueta-Fernández, M., & Cozzo, E. (2023). The impact of Spanish repression on the evolution of the Catalan networked public sphere during the post-referendum crisis (2017-2022). Ethnopolitics. https://doi.org/10.1080/17449057.2023.2275886
- Rushe, D. (2018, July 19). Donald Trump lambasts EU over $5.1bn fine for Google. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/jul/19/donald-trump-eu-google-fine
- Schneider, F. (2018). China's digital nationalism. Oxford University Press.
- Senor, D., & Singer, S. (2011). Start-up nation: The story of Israel's economic miracle. Random House.
- Silverman, J., & McKenzie, B. (2022, July 22). Nayib Buekele’s broken bitcoin promise. The Intercept. https://theintercept.com/2022/07/22/bitcoin-crypto-el-salvador-nayib-bukele/
- Stalder, F. (2018). The digital condition. John Wiley & Sons.
- Suzor, N. P. (2019). Lawless: The secret rules that govern our digital lives. Cambridge University Press.
- Talentino, A. K. (2004). The two faces of nation-building: Developing function and identity. Cambridge Review of International Affairs, 17(3), 557–575. https://doi.org/10.1080/0955757042000297008
- Torras-Vila, J., & Fernández-Cavia, J. (2018). DIPLOCAT’s public diplomacy role and the perceptions towards catalonia among international correspondents. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 14(3), 213–222. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41254-017-0073-7
- Universitat de Barcelona. (2021). Estudi d’avaluació dels impactes del desplegament del pla d’infraestructures digitals a Catalunya. https://politiquesdigitals.gencat.cat/web/.content/00-arbre/infraestructures/fibra-optica/Estudi-avaluaci-impactes-Pla-Infraestructures-digitals-editat2211.pdf
- Vaidhyanathan, S. (2018). Antisocial media: How Facebook disconnects us and undermines democracy. Oxford University Press.
- Vela, J. d. S. E., & Xifra, J. (2015). International representation strategies for stateless nations: The case of Catalonia’s cultural diplomacy. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 11(1), 83–96. https://doi.org/10.1057/pb.2014.17
- Ververis, V., Ermakova, T., Isaakidis, M., Basso, S., Fabian, B., & Milan, S. (2021, June). Understanding internet censorship in Europe: The case of Spain. In 13th ACM Web Science Conference 2021, Southampton (pp. 319–328).
- Volcic, Z., & Andrejevic, M. (2011). Nation branding in the era of commercial nationalism. International Journal of Communication, 5, 598–618.
- Von der Leyen, U. (2019, November 27). Speech by President-elect von der Leyen in the European Parliament Plenary on the occasion of the presentation of her College of Commissioners and their programme. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/SPEECH_19_6408
- Von der Leyen, U. (2020, February 19). Shaping Europe's digital future: Op-ed by Ursula von der Leyen, President of the European Commission. De Nederlandse Grondwet. https://www.denederlandsegrondwet.nl/id/vl6af5axpuzb/nieuws/shaping_europe_s_digital_future_op_ed_by?ctx=vjgtmkwna7mq&start_tab0=20
- Walter, M., Lovett, R., Maher, B., Williamson, B., Prehn, J., Bodkin-Andrews, G., & Lee, V. (2021). Indigenous data sovereignty in the era of big data and open data. Australian Journal of Social Issues, 56(2), 143–156. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajs4.141
- White, C., & Kolesnicov, I. (2015). Nation branding in a transitional democracy: The role of corporate diplomacy in promoting national identity. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 11(4), 324–337. https://doi.org/10.1057/pb.2015.13
- Xifra, J. (2009). Catalan public diplomacy, soft power, and Noopolitik: A public relations approach to Catalonia's governance. Catalan Journal of Communication & Cultural Studies, 1(1), 67–85. https://doi.org/10.1386/cjcs.1.1.67_1
- Xifra, J., & McKie, D. (2012). From realpolitik to Noopolitik: The public relations of (stateless) nations in an information age. Public Relations Review, 38(5), 819–824. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2012.04.005
- Zambelli, S. (2015). El nacionalismo catalán y autonomía relativa del Estado: un análisis del proceso secesionista. Journal de Ciencias Sociales, 5, 77–96.