527
Views
3
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

A century-long struggle towards professionalism. Key factors in the growth of the physiotherapists’ role in the United States, from subordinated practitioners to autonomous professionals

References

Primary sources

Secondary sources

  • Abbott, A. 1988. The System of Professions: An Essay on the Division of Expert Labour. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
  • Adams, T. L. 2010. “Profession: A Useful Concept for Sociological Analysis?” Canadian Review of Sociology 47 (1): 49–70.
  • Adams, T. L. 2015. “Sociology of Professions: International Divergences and Research Directions.” Work, Employment & Society 29 (1): 154–165.
  • Anderson, R. 2008. The Back Door to Medicine. Bloomington, IN: iUniverse.
  • APTA. 2001. “Guide to Physical Therapist Practice.” Physical Therapy 81 (1): 9–746.
  • APTA. 2011. Today’s Physical Therapist. Alexandria, VA: APTA.
  • Aristotle. 2016. Metaphysics. Edited by C.D.C. Reeve. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett.
  • Barclay, J. 1994. In Good Hands: The History of the C.S.P., 1894–1994. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
  • Barrett, C. M., ed. 2016. Dreeben-Irimia’s Introduction to Physical Therapy for PT Assistants. Burlington, NJ: Jones&Bartlett.
  • Barryman, J. W. 1995. Out of Many, One: A History of the American College of Sports Medicine. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
  • Bentley, P. G., and D. Dunstan. 2006. The Path to Professionalism: Physiotherapy in Australia to the 1980s. Melbourne: APA.
  • Beresford-Cooke, C. 2011. Shiatsu. Theory and Practice. New York: Elsevier.
  • Bishop, M. 2002. “Should Doctors Be the Judges of Medical Orthodoxy? The Barker Case of 1920.” Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 95 (1): 41–45.
  • Blum, N., and E. Fee. 2008. “Howard A. Rusk (1901–1989).” American Journal of Public Health 98 (2): 256–257.
  • BMJ (British Medical Journal). 1894a. “The Scandals of Massage. III.” 2.1768: 1140–1141.
  • BMJ (British Medical Journal). 1894b. “Immoral «Massage».” 2.1751: 145–146.
  • BMJ (British Medical Journal). 1905. “A Congress on Quackery.” 2.2311: 843.
  • Bourgeault, I. L., K. Hirschkorn, and I. Sainsaulieu. 2011. “Relations Between Professions and Organizations.” Professions & Professionalism 1 (1): 67–86.
  • Bouvé. 2017. Accessed March 15, 2017. http://www.northeastern.edu/bouve/physical-therapy/history
  • Bovine, G. 2013. “John Atkinson (1854–1904), the English Bonesetter of Park Lane.” Chiropractic History 33 (1): 52–64.
  • Brante, T. 2010. “Professional Fields and Truth Regimes: In Search of Alternative Approaches.” Comparative Sociology 9 (6): 843–886.
  • Brante, T. 2011. “Professions as Science-based Occupations.” Professions & Professionalism 1 (1): 4–20.
  • Brock, D. M., and M. Saks. 2016. “Professions and Organizations: A European Perspective.” European Management Journal 34: 1–6.
  • Brown, T. A. 1948. “The Student Nurse and Physical Therapy.” American Journal of Nursing 48 (10): 657–659.
  • Brown, T. 1987. The American Orthopedic Association: A Centennial History. Park Ridge, IL: AOA.
  • Burrage, M., K. Jarausch, and H. Siegrist. 1990. “An Actor-based Framework for the Study of Professions.” In Professions in Theory and History: Rethinking the Study of the Professions, edited by M. Burrage and R. Torstendahl, 203–225. London: Sage.
  • Cabrera, M. 1996. “Médicos, cirujanos y curanderos en Córdoba durante la segunda mitad del siglo XV.” [Physicians, Surgeons and Healers in Cordoba during the Second Half of the XV Century.] Anuario de Estudios Medievales 26 (1): 329–363.
  • Calvert, R. N. 2002. The History of Massage. Rochester, MN: Healing Arts Press.
  • Carr-Saunders, A. M., and P. A. Wilson. 1933. The Professions. Oxford: Clarendon.
  • Carter, N. 2012. Medicine, Sport and the Body. A Historical Perspective. London: Bloomsbury.
  • Chipchase, L. S., P. Galley, G. Jull, J. M. McMeeken, K. Refshauge, M. Nayler, and A. Wright. 2006. “Looking Back at 100 Years of Physiotherapy Education in Australia.” Australian Journal of Physiotherapy 52 (1): 3–7.
  • Cleather, J. M. 1995. Head, Heart and Hands: The Story of Physiotherapy in Canada. Toronto: Canadian Physiotherapy Assoc.
  • Cleather, J. M. 2008. “Physiotherapy-leadership and Opportunities.” Physiotherapy Canada 60 (4): 318–328.
  • Clynch, H. M. 2012. The Role of the Physical Therapist Assistant. Philadelphia, PA: Davis.
  • Coates, A. 1956. “Physiotherapy in the Modern Medical Scene.” Australian Journal of Physiotherapy 2 (2): 108–110.
  • Coburn, D. 2006. “Medical Dominance Then and Now: Critical Reflections.” Health Sociology Review 15 (5): 432–443.
  • Cole, T. M. 1993. “The Greening of Physiatry in a Golden Era of Rehabilitation.” Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 74 (3): 231–237.
  • Colman, W. 1992. “Maintaining Autonomy: The Struggle Between Occupational Therapy and Physical Medicine.” American Journal of Occupational Therapy 46 (1): 63–70.
  • Cooter, R. 1987. “Bones of Contention? Orthodox Medicine and the Mystery of the Bone-Setter’s Craft’.” In Medical Fringe and Medical Orthodoxy, 1750–1850, edited by W. F. Bynum and R. Porter, 158–173. London: Croom Helm.
  • Dillingham, T. R. 2002. “Physiatry, Physical Medicine, and Rehabilitation: Historical Development and Military Roles.” Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation Clinics of North America 13 (1): 1–16.
  • Dreeben-Irimia, O. 2011. Introduction to Physical Therapy for PT Assistants [Memories of a Breton Bonesetter]. Sudbury: Jones&Bartlett.
  • Ecole-Boivin, C. 2014. Mémoires d’un rebouteux Breton. Paris: Presses de la Cité.
  • Ernst, E. 2008a. “Chiropractic: A Critical Evaluation.” Journal of Pain and Symptom Management 35 (5): 544–562.
  • Ernst, E., ed. 2008b. Healing, Hype or Harm? A Critical Analysis of Complementary or Alternative Medicine. Exeter: Societas.
  • Ernst, E., and S. Singh. 2008. Trick or Treatment: The Undeniable Facts about Alternative Medicine. New York: Norton.
  • Evetts, J. 2002. “New Directions in State and International Professional Occupations.” Work, employment and society 16 (2): 341–353.
  • Evetts, J. 2003. “The Sociological Analysis of Professionalism.” International Society 18 (2): 395–415.
  • Evetts, J. 2006. “Short Note: The Sociology of Professional Groups.” Current Sociology 54 (1): 133–143.
  • Evetts, J. 2011. “A New Professionalism? Challenges and Opportunities.” Current Sociology 59 (4): 406–422.
  • Faglie Low, J. 1992. “The Reconstruction Aides.” American Journal of Occupational Therapy 46 (1): 38–43.
  • Farnbach, M. 1955. “Physiotherapy for Poliomyelitis Patients in Victoria.” Australian Journal of Physiotherapy 1 (4): 182–187.
  • Fitch, K. D. 1972. “Sports Medicine in the Seventies.” Australian Journal of Physiotherapy 18 (1): 12–14.
  • Fournier, V. 1999. “Boundary Work and the (Un)Making of the Professions.” In Professionalism, Boundaries and the Workplace, edited by N. Malin, 67–86. London: Routledge.
  • Fox, R. D. 1882. “On Bone Setting (So-Called).” Lancet 120 (3090): 843.
  • Freidson, E. 1970a. Profession of Medicine: A Study of the Sociology of Applied Knowledge. New York: Harper&Row.
  • Freidson, E. 1970b. Professional Dominance. The Social Structure of Medical Care. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
  • Freidson, E. 2001. Professionalism. The Third Logic. Cambridge: Polity Press.
  • Gabard, D. L., and M. W. Martin. 2011. Physical Therapy Ethics. Philadelphia, PA: Davis.
  • Gavin, L. 1997. American Women in WWI: They Also Served. Niwot, CO: Univ. Press [UP] of Colorado.
  • Gevitz, N. 1987. “Sectarian Medicine.” Journal of the American Medical Association 257 (12): 1636–1640; 258.1: 44.
  • Gevitz, N. 1988a. “A.T. Still and the Social Origins of Osteopathy.” In Studies in the History of Alternative Medicine, edited by R. Cooter, 155–170. Oxford: MacMillan.
  • Gevitz, N. 1988b. “Osteopathic Medicine: From Deviance to Difference.” In Other Healers. Unorthodox Medicine in America, edited by N. Gevitz, 124–156. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins UP.
  • Gevitz, N. 1994. “Parallel and Distinctive: The Philosophic Pathway for Reform in Osteopathic Medical Education.” The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association 94 (4): 328–332.
  • Gevitz, N. 2004. The DOs: Osteopathic Medicine in America. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins UP.
  • Gevitz, N. 2014. “From Doctor of Osteopathy to Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine.” The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association 114 (6): 486–497.
  • Gleich, L. 1860. Physiatrische Schriften. 1849–1858 [Physiatrical Writings. 1848–1858]. Munich: Franz.
  • Gonzales, E. G. 1994. “Physiatric Sub-specialization: Elements of Time.” Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 75 (3): 237–242.
  • Goode, W. J. 1957. “Community Within a Community: The Professions.” American Sociological Review 22 (2): 194–200.
  • Goode, W. J. 1960. “Encroachment, Charlatanism, and the Emerging Profession: Psychology, Sociology, and Medicine.” American Sociological Review 25 (6): 902–914.
  • Graham, E. G. 1970. “Reflections and Recollections.” Physiotherapy Canada 22: 57–59.
  • Greenwood, E. 1957. “Attributes of a Profession.” Social Work 2 (3): 44–55.
  • Gutman, S. A. 1995. “Influence of the U.S. Military and Occupational Therapy Reconstruction Aides in WWI on the Development of Occupational Therapy.” American Journal of Occupational Therapy 49 (3): 256–262.
  • Hall, R. H. 1968. “Professionalization and Bureaucratization.” American Sociological Review 33 (1): 92–104.
  • Hansson, N., and A. Ottosson. 2015. “Nobel Prize for Physical Therapy? Rise, Fall, and Revival of Medico-mechanical Institutes” Physical Therapy 95 (8): 1184–1194.
  • Hartwick, A. M. R. 1995. The Army Medical Specialist Corps – the 45th Anniversary. Washington, DC: Centre of Military History.
  • Hashimoto, K. 1981. Sotai Natural Exercise. Chico, CA: Macrobiotic Found.
  • Haug, M. R. 1975. “The Deprofessionalization of Everyone?” Sociological Focus 8 (3): 197–213.
  • Heap, R., and M. Stuart. 1995. “Nurses and Physiotherapists: Issues in the Professionalization of Health Care Occupations During and After WWI.” Health and Canadian Society 3 (1–2): 179–193.
  • Heap, R. 2001. “The Emergence of Physiotherapy as a New Profession for Canadian Women, 1914–1918.” In Framing Out Past. Canadian Women’s History in the XX Century, edited by S. A. Cook, L. R. McLean, K. O’Rourke, 295–299. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s UP.
  • Hislop, H. J., D. Avers, and M. Brown. 2014. Daniels and Worthingham Muscle Testing. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier.
  • Hoeman, S. P. 2008. Rehabilitation Nursing. St. Louis, MO: Mosby.
  • Hood, W. H. 1871. “On the So-called Bone Setting, Its Nature and Results.” Lancet 97: 336–338; 372–4; 441–3, 499–501.
  • Horder, T. J. 1952. “Foreword.” Annals Physical Therapy 1: 1–2.
  • Howland, J. 2012. A History of Orthopedics. Baltimore, MD: PublishAmerica.
  • Huijbregts, P. A. 2007. “Chiropractic Legal Challenges to the Physical Therapy Scope of Practice.” Journal of Manual and Manipulative Therapy 15 (2): 69–80.
  • Hunder, G. G., and E. L. Matteson. 2010. “Rheumatology Practice at Mayo Clinic: The First 40 Years – 1920–1960.” Mayo Clinic Proceedings 85 (4): 17–30.
  • Ingham, E. D. 1984. Stories the Feet Can Tell Thru. Petersburg, VA: Ingham Pub.
  • Johnson, G. R. 1985. “Great Expectations: A Force in Growth and Change.” Physical Therapy 65 (11): 1690–1695.
  • Johnson, M. P., and S. L. Abrams. 2005. “Historical Perspectives of Autonomy Within the Medical Profession: Considerations for XXI Century PT Practice.” Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy 35 (10): 628–636.
  • Kantor, H., and D. B. Tyack, eds. 1982. Work, Youth, and Schooling: Historical Perspectives on Vocationalism in American Education. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP.
  • Kaptchuk, T. J., and D. M. Eisenberg. 1998. “Chiropractic, Origins, Controversies, and Contributions.” Archives of Internal Medicine 158 (20): 2215–2224.
  • KD (Krusen Diary), comments of J. L. Opitz, et alii 1997. “The History of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation as Recorded in the Diary of Dr. Frank Krusen.” Part 1, Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 78 (4): 442–445; Folz, T.J. et alii, Part 2, ivi: 446–450; Gelfman, R. et alii, Part 3, ivi, 78 (5): 556–561; Peters, J. et alii, Part 4, ivi: 562–565.
  • Keating Jr., J. C., A. Callender, and C. S Cleveland. 1998. A History of Chiropractic Education in North America. Davenport, IA: Assoc. History of Chiropractic.
  • Keating Jr., J. C. 2004. “A Brief History of the Chiropractic Profession.” In Principles and Practice of Chiropractic, edited by S. Haldeman, 23–64. New York: McGraw-Hill.
  • Kendall, F., and H. O. 1949. Muscles, Testing and Function. Baltimore, MD: Williams&Wilkins.
  • Kendall, F. 1998. “Sister E. Kenny Revisited.” Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 79 (4): 361–365.
  • Kersley, G. D., and J. Glyn. 1991. A Concise International History of Rheumatism and Rehabilitation. London: Royal Soc. Med. Services.
  • Korobov, S. 2005. “Editorial – Towards the Origin of the Term Physiotherapy.” Physiotherapy Research International 10 (3): 123–124.
  • Kottke, F. J., and M. E. Knapp. 1988. “The Development of Physiatry Before 1950.” Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 69: 4–14.
  • Lansbury, G. F. 1971. “Is Physiotherapy Truly Professional?” Australian Journal of Physiotherapy 17 (4): 135–137.
  • Lanska, D. J. 2015. “The Historical Origins of Stroke Rehabilitation.” In Stroke Recovery and Rehabilitation, edited by Stein, J., et alii, 3–30. New York: Demos Medical.
  • Larkin, G. 1983. Occupational Monopoly and Modern Medicine. London: Tavistock.
  • Larson, M. S. 1977. The Rise of Professionalism: A Sociological Analysis. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
  • Leach, R. 2004. The Chiropractic Theories: A Textbook of Scientific Research. Baltimore, MD: Lippincott.
  • Linker, B. 2005a. “Strenght and Science: Gender, Physiotherapy, and Medicine in the United States, 1918–35.” Journal of Women’s History 17 (3): 106–132.
  • Linker, B. 2005b. “The Business of Ethics: Gender, Medicine, and the Professional Codification of the APTA, 1918–1935.” Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 60 (3): 320–354.
  • Linker, B. 2011. War’s Waste: Rehabilitation in WWI America. Chicago, IL: Chicago UP.
  • Littré, E. 1844. Argument. Hippocrate, Des articulations. [French trans.]. Œuvres Complètes d’Hippocrate [Argument. Hippocrates, On Joints”] French trans. [“Complete Works of Hippocrates], vol. IV. Paris: Baillière.
  • MacDonald, K. 1995. The Sociology of the Professions. London: Sage.
  • Marble, S. 2008. Rehabilitating the Wounded: Historical Perspectives on Army Policy. Washington, DC: Office of Medical History.
  • Marshall, T. H. 1939. “The Recent History of Professionalism in Relation to Social Structure and Social Policy.” The Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science 5 (3): 325–340.
  • Martin, J. L. 1999. “A True Profession.” Physical Therapy 79 (10): 978–990.
  • Massey Jr., B. F. 2001. “APTA Presidential Address: We Have Arrived!” Physical Therapy 81 (11): 1830–1833.
  • Massey Jr, B. F. 2002. “What’s All the Fuss About Direct Access?” Physical Therapy 82 (11): 1120–1123.
  • Mastekaasa, A. 2011. “How Important is Autonomy to Professional Workers?” Professions & Professionalism 1 (1): 36–51.
  • Mathews, J. S. 1989. “Preparation for the XXI Century: The Educational Challenge.” Physical Therapy 69 (11): 981–986.
  • McCullick, B. A., and M. Lomax. 2000. “The Boston Normal School of Gymnastics: An Unheralded Legacy.” QUEST 52 (1): 49–59.
  • McMillan, M. 1921. Massage and Therapeutic Exercise. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders.
  • MGH (Massachusetts General Hospital), PT Annual Report 2011. 1811–2011. Glimpses of Your Past: A Year of New Memories. Boston: MGH.
  • Miles-Tapping, C. 1989. “Sponsorship and Sacrifice in the Historical Development of Canadian Physiotherapy.” Physiotherapy Canada 41 (2): 72–80.
  • Miller, K. 1998. “The Evolution of Professional Identity: The Case of Osteopathic Medicine.” Social Science & Medicine 47 (11): 1739–1748.
  • Millerson, G. 1964. The Qualifying Associations. London: Routledge&Kegan.
  • Moffat, M. 1996. “Three Quarters of a Century of Healing the Generations.” Physical Therapy 76 (11): 1242–1252.
  • Moffat, M. 2003. “The History of Physical Therapy Practice in the United States.” Journal of Physical Therapy Education 17 (3): 15–25.
  • Moffat, M. 2004. “Braving New Worlds: To Conquer, to Endure.” Physical Therapy 84 (11): 1056–1086.
  • Monet, J. 2003. “Emergence de la Kinésithérapie en France à la fin du XIXème siècle et au début du XXème siècle. [The Appearance of Kinesitherapy in France at the End of the XIX Century and at the Beginning of the XX Century]” Ph.D. thesis, Sociology, Université de Paris I/Panthéon-Sorbonne.
  • Monet, J. 2009. La naissance de la kinésitherapie [The Origins of Kinesitherapy]. Paris: Glyphe.
  • Morris Piersol, G. 1945. “The Nurse in Physical Medicine.” American Journal of Nursing 45 (7): 526–531.
  • Murphy, W. 1995. Healing the Generations: A History of Physical Therapy and the APTA. Alexandria, VA: APTA.
  • Muzio, D., and I. Kirkpatrick. 2011. “Introduction: Professions and Organizations – A Conceptual Framework.” Current Sociology 59 (4): 389–405.
  • Nelson, C. W. 1995. “Physiotherapy and Physical Therapy at Mayo.” Mayo Clinic Proceedings 70 (6): 516.
  • Nelson, R. M. 2013. “The Next Evolution.” Physical Therapy 93 (10): 1415–1425.
  • Neumann, D. A. 2004. “Polio: Its Impact on the People of the United States and the Emerging Profession of PT.” Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy 34 (8): 479–492.
  • Nicholls, D. A. 2008. Body Politics: A Foucauldian Discourse Analysis of Physiotherapy Practice. PhD thesis, School of Health Sciences, Univ. South Australia.
  • Nicholls, D. A. 2012. “Foucault and Physiotherapy.” Physiotherapy Theory and Practice 28 (6): 447–453.
  • Nicholls, D. A., and J. Cheek. 2006. “Physiotherapy and the Shadow of Prostitution: The Society of Trained Masseuses and the Massage Scandals of 1894.” Social Science & Medicine 62 (9): 2336–2348.
  • Nicholls, D. A., and B. E. Gibson. 2010. “The Body and Physiotherapy.” Physiotherapy Theory and Practice 26 (8): 497–509.
  • Noordegraaf, M. 2007. “From «Pure» to «Hybrid» Professionalism.” Administration & Society 39 (6): 761–785.
  • Noordegraaf, M. 2011. “Remaking Professionals? How Associations and Professional Education Connect Professionalism and Organizations.” Current Sociology 59 (4): 465–488.
  • Noordegraaf, M. 2015. “Hybrid Professionalism and Beyond: (New) Forms of Public Professionalism in Changing Organizational and Societal Contexts.” Journal of Professions and Organization 2 (2): 187–206.
  • Olson, K. A. 2016. Manual Physical Therapy of the Spine. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier.
  • Oshinsky, D. M. 2005. Polio: An American Story. New York: Oxford UP.
  • Ottosson, A. 2010. “The First Historical Movements of Kinesiology: Scientification in the Borderline Between Physical Culture and Medicine Around 1850.” The International Journal of the History of Sport 27 (11): 1892–1919.
  • Ottosson, A. 2016. “One History or Many Herstories? Gender Politics and the History of Physiotherapy’s Origins in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Century.” Women’s History Review 25 (2): 296–319.
  • Øvretveit, J. 1985. “Medical Dominance and the Development of Professional Autonomy in Physiotherapy.” Sociology of Health & Illness 7 (1): 76–93.
  • Paget, J. 1867. “Cases That Bonesetters Cure.” British Medical Journal 1 (314): 1–4.
  • Paris, V. 2006. “In the Best Interests of the Patient.” Physical Therapy 86 (11): 1541–1553.
  • Park, R. J. 2007. “Science, Service, and the Professionalization of Physical Education: 1885–1905.” The International Journal of the History of Sport 24 (12): 1674–1700.
  • Parsons, T. 1968. “Professionals.” In International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Vol. 12, edited by D. L. Sills, 536–547. New York: Free Press.
  • Peltier, L. F. 1993. Orthopedics: A History and Iconography. San Francisco, CA: Norman Pub.
  • Peterson, B. E. 2011. “Major Events in Osteopathic History.” In Foundations of Osteopathic Medicine, edited by A. Chila, chap. 2. Baltimore, MD: Lippincott.
  • Pettman, E. 2007. “A History of Manipulative Medicine.” Journal of Manual and Manipulative Therapy 15 (3): 165–174.
  • Pisetsky, D., ed. 2009. The ACR at 75: A Diamond Jubilee. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.
  • Playter, E. 1894. “Physiotherapy First: Nature’s Medicaments Before Drug Remedies: Particularly Relating to Hydrotherapy.” Montreal Medicine Journal 22 (11): 816.
  • Porter, R. 2000. Quacks: Fakers & Charlatans in English Medicine. Charleston, SC: Tempus.
  • Pritchard, S. 2015. Tui na: A Manual of Chinese Therapy. London-Philadelphia: Singing Dragon.
  • PTRS [Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation Science] News. 2013. University of Maryland, School of Medicine, Spring .
  • Purtillo, R. B. 1977. “The APTA’s Code of Ethics: Its Historical Foundations.” Physical Therapy 57 (9): 1001–1006.
  • Purtillo, R. B. 1987. “Codes of Ethics in Physiotherapy: A Retrospective View and Look Ahead.” Physiother Theory and Practice 3 (1): 28–34.
  • Purtillo, R. B. 2000. “A Time to Harvest, a Time to Sow: Ethics For a Shifting Landscape.” Physical Therapy 80 (11): 1112–1119.
  • Quiroga, V. A. M. 1995. Occupational Therapy: The First Thirty Years, 1900–1930. Bethesda, MD: AOTA.
  • Richardson, J. K. 2000. “Tipping the Scales of Time.” Physical Therapy 80 (11): 1121–1124.
  • Rogers, N. 1992. Dirt and Disease: Polio Before FDR. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers UP.
  • Rogers, N. 2013. Polio Wars: Sister Kenny and the Golden Age of American Medicine. New York: Oxford UP.
  • Rothstein, J. M. 2002. “Editor’s Note: Autonomy and Dependency.” Physical Therapy 82 (8): 750–751.
  • Sahrmann, S. A. 1998. “Moving Precisely? Or Taking the Path of Least Resistance?” Physical Therapy 78 (11): 1208–1219.
  • Sahrmann, S. A. 2014. “The Human Movement System: Our Professional Identity.” Physical Therapy 94 (7): 1035.
  • Saks, M. 2010. “Analyzing the Professions: The Case for the Neo-Weberian Approach.” Comparative Sociology 9 (6): 887–915.
  • Saks, M. 2012. “Defining a Profession: The Role of Knowledge and Expertise.” Professions & Professionalism 2 (1): 1–10.
  • Sandel, M. E. 2013. “Dr. Herman Kabat: Neuroscience in Translation … From Bench to Bedside.” Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation 5 (6): 453-461.
  • Sandstrom, R. W. 2007. “The Meanings of Autonomy for PT.” Physical Therapy 87 (1): 98–106.
  • Schiotz, E. H., and J. Cyriax. 1975. Manipulation: Past and Present. London: Heinemann.
  • Schleichkorn, J. 1990. Signe Brunnstrom: Physical Therapy Pioneer, Master Clinician, and Humanitarian. Thorofare, NJ: Slack.
  • Schleichkorn, J. 1996. “Colonel Emma Vogel and Her Contributions to the U.S. Army and Profession of PT.” PhysioTherapy Bulletin 11 (15): 8–12.
  • Schleichkorn, J. 2004. “The Origin of a Tradition. How PT Traces Its Roots Back to the Military.” Advance for Physiotherapists & Physiotherapy Assistants 15 (8): 53.
  • Sciulli, D. 2010a. “Preface to Professions Today: Received Wisdom, Case Challenges, Contributor Issues and Questions.” Comparative Sociology, 9 (6): 724-743.
  • Sciulli, D. 2010b. “Why Professions Matter: Structural Invariance, Institutional Consequences, Bias.” Comparative Sociology ivi: 744–803.
  • Soderberg, G. L. 1993. “On Passing From Ignorance to Knowledge.” Physical Therapy 73 (11): 797–808.
  • Starr, P. 1982. The Social Transformation of American Medicine. New York: Basic Books.
  • Stecher, R. M. 1958. “The American Rheumatism Association: Its Origins, Development and Maturity.” Arthritis & Rheumatology 1 (1): 4–19.
  • Stiene, B., and F. 2005. The Japanese Art of Reiki. Winchester: O Books.
  • Swanson, R. A., and B. M. Spears. 1995. History of Sport and Physical Education in the United States. Madison, WI: Brown&Benchmark.
  • Swanson, R. A. 2013. “History of Physical Activity.” In Introduction to Kinesiology, edited by S. J. Hoffman, 177–178. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
  • Swisher, L. L., and C. Kruger Brophy. 1998. Legal and Ethical Issues in Physical Therapy. Boston, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.
  • Swisher, L. L., and G. C. Page. 2005. Professionalism in PT. History, Practice, & Development. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier.
  • Swisher, L. L., and P. Hiller. 2010. “The Revised APTA Code of Ethics for the PT and Standards of Ethical Conduct for the PT Assistant.” Physical Therapy 90 (5): 803–824.
  • Terlouw, T. J. 2000. “How Can We Treat Collective Amnesia?” Physiotherapy 86 (5): 257–261.
  • Terlouw, T. J. 2006. “The Origin of the Term Physiotherapy.” Physiotherapy Research International 11 (1): 56–57.
  • Terlouw, T. J. 2007. “Roots of Physical Medicine, PT, and Mechanotherapy in the Netherlands in the XIX Century.” Journal of Manual and Manipulative Therapy 15 (2): 23–41.
  • Threlkeld, A. J., G. M. Jensen, and C. B. Royeen. 1999. “The Clinical Doctorate: A Framework for Analysis in Physical Therapist Education.” Physical Therapy 79 (6): 567–581.
  • Tousijn, W. 2006. “Beyond Decline: Consumerism, Managerialism and the Need for a New Medical Professionalism.” Health Sociology Review 15 (5): 469–480.
  • Ussery, P. A. 2013. “Col. Emma Vogel.” The AMEDD Historian 2: 1–2.
  • Varna, D., and R. Stone. 2011. Pranotherapy, the Origins of Polarity Therapy and European Neuromuscular Technique. London: MWI.
  • Verville, R. 2009. War, Politics, and Philanthropy: The History of Rehabilitation Medicine. Lanham, MD: UP of America.
  • Voss, D. E. 1982. “Everything is There Before You Discover It.” Physical Therapy 62 (11): 1617–1624.
  • Waring, J. 2014. “Restratification, Hybridity and Professional Elites.” Sociology Compass 8 (6): 688–704.
  • Waters, M. 1989. “Collegiality, Bureaucratization, and Professionalism: A Weberian Analysis.” American Journal of Sociology 94 (5): 945–972.
  • Wiese, G.,and A. Callender 2004. History of Spinal Manipulation, 5-22, in Haldeman, cit.
  • Wilensky, H. L. 1964. “The Professionalization of Everyone?” American Journal of Sociology 70 (2): 137–158.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.