Affective polarization and strategic voting in Britain

References

• Abramowitz, Alan I., and Steven Webster. 2016. “The Rise of Negative Partisanship and the Nationalization of U.S. Elections in the 21st Century.” Electoral Studies 41:12–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2015.11.001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alvarez, Michael R., Frederick J. Boehmke, and Jonathan Nagler. 2006. “Strategic Voting in British Elections.” Electoral Studies 25 (1): 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2005.02.008.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alvarez, Michael R., and Jonathan Nagler. 2006. “A New Approach for Modelling Strategic Voting in Multiparty Elections.” British Journal of Political Science 30:57–75. https://doi.org/10.1017/S000712340000003X.
   Google Scholar
• Bafumi, Joseph, and Robert Y. Shapiro. 2009. “A New Partisan Voter.” Journal of Politics 71 (1): 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022381608090014.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Banda, Kevin, and John Cluverius. 2018. “Elite Polarization, Party Extremity, and Affective Polarization.” Electoral Studies 56:90–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2018.09.009.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bankert, Alexa. 2021. “Negative and Positive Partisanship in the 2016 U.S. Presidential Elections.” Political Behavior 43 (4): 1467–1485. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-020-09599-1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bassan-Nygate, Lotem, and Chagai M. Weiss. 2022. “Party Competition and Cooperation Shape Affective Polarization: Evidence from Natural and Survey Experiments in Israel.” Comparative Political Studies 55 (2): 287–318. https://doi.org/10.1177/00104140211024283.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blais, André. 2002. “Why Is There So Little Strategic Voting in Canadian Plurality Rule Elections.” Political Studies 50 (3): 445–454. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9248.00378.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blais, André, and Arianna Degan. 2019. “The Study of Strategic Voting.” In The Oxford Handbook of Public Choice, Volume 1, edited by Roger D. Congleton, Bernard Grofman, and Stefan Voigt, 292–309. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Blais, André, and Richard Nadeau. 1996. “Measuring Strategic Voting: A Two Step Procedure.” Electoral Studies 15 (1): 39–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/0261-3794(94)00014-X.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bolsen, Toby, and Judd R. Thornton. 2021. “Candidate and Party Affective Polarization in U.S. Presidential Elections: The Person-Negative Bias?” Electoral Studies 71:102293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2021.102293.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cain, Bruce. 1978. “Strategic Voting in Britain.” American Journal of Political Science 22 (3): 639–655. https://doi.org/10.2307/2110465.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell, Angus, Philip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller, and Donald E. Stokes. 1960. The American Voter. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Caruana, Carla M. N., R. Michael McGregor, Aaron A. Moore, and Laura B. Stephenson. 2017. “Voting ‘Ford’ or Against: Understanding Strategic Voting in the 2014 Toronto Municipal Election.” Social Science Quarterly 99 (1): 231–245. https://doi.org/10.1111/ssqu.12359.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caruana, Nicholas J., R. Michael McGregor, and Laura B. Stephenson. 2015. “The Power of the Dark Side: Negative Partisanship and Political Behaviour in Canada.” Canadian Journal of Political Science 48 (4): 771–789. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0008423914000882.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cherry, Todd L., and Stephan Kroll. 2003. “Crashing the Party: An Experimental Investigation of Strategic Voting in Primary Elections.” Public Choice 114 (3/4): 387–420. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022637002301.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chopik, William J., and Matt Motyl. 2016. “Ideological Fit Enhances Interpersonal Orientations.” Social Psychological and Personality Science 7 (8): 759–768. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550616658096.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cox, Gary W. 1997. Making Votes Count: Strategic Coordination in the World’s Electoral Systems. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Dias, Nicholas, and Yphtach Lelkes. 2022. “The Nature of Affective Polarization: Disentangling Policy Disagreement from Partisan Identity.” American Journal of Political Science 66 (3): 775–790. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12628.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Druckman, James N., and Matthew S. Levendusky. 2019. “What Do We Measure When We Measure Affective Polarization?” Public Opinion Quarterly 83 (1): 114–122. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfz003.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duverger, Maurice. 1951. Political Parties: Their Organization and Activity in the Modern State. New York: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Fiorina, Morris P. 1976. “The Voting Decision: Instrumental and Expressive Aspects.” Journal of Politics 38 (2): 390–413. https://doi.org/10.2307/2129541.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franklin, Mark, Richard Niemi, and Guy Whitten. 1994. “The Two Faces of Tactical Voting.” British Journal of Political Science 24 (4): 549–557. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123400007006.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garrett, Kristin N., and Alexa Bankert. 2018. “The Moral Roots of Partisan Division: How Moral Conviction Heightens Affective Polarization.” British Journal of Political Science 50 (2): 621–640. https://doi.org/10.1017/S000712341700059X.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garzia, Diego, and Frederico Ferreira de Silva. 2022a. “Negativity and Political Behavior: A Theoretical Framework for the Analysis of Negative Voting in Contemporary Democracies.” Political Studies Review 20 (2): 282–291. https://doi.org/10.1177/14789299211000187.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garzia, Diego, and Frederico Ferreira de Silva. 2022b. “The Electoral Consequences of Affective Polarization? Negative Voting in the 2020 US Presidential Election.” American Politics Research 50 (3): 303–311. https://doi.org/10.1177/1532673X221074633.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gidron, Noam, James Adams, and Will Horne. 2019. “Toward a Comparative Research Agenda on Affective Polarization in Mass Public.” APSA Comparative Politics Newsletter 29:30–36.
   Google Scholar
• Gift, Karen, and Thomas Gift. 2015. “Does Politics Influence Hiring? Evidence from a Randomized Experiment.” Political Behavior 37 (3): 653–675. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-014-9286-0.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greene, Steven. 1999. “Understanding Party Identification: A Social Identity Approach.” Political Psychology 20 (2): 393–403. https://doi.org/10.1111/0162-895X.00150.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hale, Isaac D. 2020. “Abandon Ship? An Analysis of Strategic Voting among Liberal Democrat Voters in the 2015 UK Election.” Parliamentary Affairs 73 (3): 503–521. https://doi.org/10.1093/pa/gsz007.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hernández, Enrique, Eva Anduiza, and Guillem Rico. 2021. “Affective Polarization and the Salience of Elections.” Electoral Studies 69:102203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2020.102203.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hetherington, Marc J., and Thomas J. Rudolph. 2015. Why Washington Won’t Work: Polarization, Political Trust, and the Governing Crisis. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hillman, Arye L. 2010. “Expressive Behavior in Economics and Politics.” European Journal of Political Economy 26 (4): 403–418. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2010.06.004.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hillygus, D. Sunshine, and Sarah A. Treul. 2014. “Assessing Strategic Voting in the 2008 US Presidential Primaries: The Role of Electoral Context, Institutional Rules, and Negative Votes.” Public Choice 161 (3–4): 517–536. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11127-014-0183-1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hobolt, Sara B., Thomas J. Leeper, and James Tilley. 2021. “Divided by the Vote: Affective Polarization in the Wake of the Brexit Referendum.” British Journal of Political Science 51 (4): 1476–1493. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123420000125.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horne, Will, James Adams, and Noam Gidron. 2023. “The Way We Were: How Histories of Co-Governance Alleviate Partisan Hostility.” Comparative Political Studies 56 (3): 299–325. https://doi.org/10.1177/00104140221100197.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huber, Gregory A, and Neil Malhotra. 2017. “Political Homophily in Social Relationships: Evidence from Online Dating Behavior.” Journal of Politics 79 (1): 269–283. https://doi.org/10.1086/687533.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huddy, Leonie, and Omer Yair. 2021. “Reducing Affective Polarization: Warm Group Relations or Policy Compromise?” Political Psychology 42 (2): 291–309. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12699.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Imai, Kosuke, Luke Keele, Dustin Tingley, and Teppei Yamamato. 2011. “Unpacking the Black Box of Causality: Learning About Causal Mechanisms from Experimental and Observational Studies.” American Political Science Review 105 (4): 765–789. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055411000414.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iyengar, Shanto, Yphtach Lelkes, Matthew Levendusky, Neil Malhotra, and Sean J. Westwood. 2019. “The Origins and Consequences of Affective Polarization in the United States.” Annual Review of Political Science 22 (1): 129–146. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-polisci-051117-073034.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iyengar, Shanto, Gaurav Sood, and Yphtach Lelkes. 2012. “Affect, Not Ideology: A Social Identity Perspective on Polarization.” Public Opinion Quarterly 76 (3): 405–431. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfs038.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iyengar, Shanto, and Sean J. Westwood. 2015. “Fear and Loathing Across Party Lines: New Evidence on Group Polarization.” American Journal of Political Science 59 (3): 690–707. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12152.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnston, Richard. 2006. “Party Identification: Unmoved Mover or Sum of Preferences?” Annual Review of Political Science 9 (1): 329–351. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.9.062404.170523.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kekkonen, Arto, and Tuomas Ylä-Anttila. 2021. “Affective Blocs: Understanding Affective Polarization in Multiparty Systems.” Electoral Studies 72:102367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2021.102367.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, Bumsoo, Ryan Broussard, and Matthew Barnidge. 2023. “Testing Political Knowledge as a Mediator of the Relationship Between News Use and Affective Polarization.” Social Science Journal 60 (4): 731–743. https://doi.org/10.1080/03623319.2020.1750845.
   Google Scholar
• Kingzette, Jon, James N. Druckman, Samara Klar, Yanna Krupnikov, Matthew Levendusky, and John Barry Ryan. 2021. “How Affective Polarization Undermines Support for Democratic Norms.” Public Opinion Quarterly 85 (2): 663–677. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfab029.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klar, Samara, Yanna Krupnikov, and John Barry Ryan. 2018. “Affective Polarization or Partisan Disdain? Untangling Dislike for the Opposing Party from a Dislike of Partisanship.” Public Opinion Quarterly 82 (2): 379–390. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfy014.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knigge, Pia. 1998. “The Ecological Correlates of Right-Wing Extremism in Western Europe.” European Journal of Political Research 34 (2): 249–279.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knudsen, Erik. 2021. “Affective Polarization in Multiparty Systems? Comparing Affective Polarization Towards Voters and Parties in Norway and the United States.” Scandinavian Political Studies 44 (1): 34–44. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9477.12186.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lau, Richard R., David J. Andersen, Tessa M. Ditonto, Mona S. Kleinberg, and David P. Redlawsk. 2017. “Effect of Media Environment Diversity and Advertising Tone on Information Search, Selective Exposure, and Affective Polarization.” Political Behavior 39 (1): 231–255. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-016-9354-8.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lelkes, Yphtach. 2021. “Policy Over Party: Comparing the Effects of Candidate Ideology and Party on Affective Polarization.” Political Science Research and Methods 9 (1): 189–196. https://doi.org/10.1017/psrm.2019.18.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luttig, Matthew D. 2017. “Authoritarianism and Affective Polarization: A New View on the Origins of Partisan Extremism.” Public Opinion Quarterly 81 (4): 866–895. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfx023.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maggiotto, Michael A., and James E. Piereson. 1977. “Partisan Identification and Electoral Choice: The Hostility Hypothesis.” American Journal of Political Science 21 (4): 745–767. https://doi.org/10.2307/2110735.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mason, Lilliana. 2018. Uncivil Agreement: How Politics Became Our Identity. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mayer, Sabrina Jasmin. 2017. “How Negative Partisanship Affects Voting Behavior in Europe: Evidence from an Analysis of 17 European Multi-Party Systems with Proportional Voting.” Research and Politics 4 (1): 1–7.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McConnell, Christopher, Yotam Margalit, Neil Malhotra, and Matthew Levendusky. 2018. “The Economic Consequences of Partisanship in a Polarized Era.” American Journal of Political Science 62 (1): 5–18. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12330.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGregor, R. Michael, Nicholas J. Caruana, and Laura B. Stephenson. 2015. “Negative Partisanship in a Multi-Party System: The Case of Canada.” Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties 25 (3): 300–316. https://doi.org/10.1080/17457289.2014.997239.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Medeiros, Mike, and Alain Noël. 2014. “The Forgotten Side of Partisanship: Negative Party Identification in Four Anglo-American Democracies.” Comparative Political Studies 47 (7): 1022–1046. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414013488560.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicholson, Stephen P., Chelsea M. Coe, Jason Emory, and Anna V. Song. 2016. “The Politics of Beauty: The Effects of Partisan Bias on Physical Attractiveness.” Political Behavior 38 (4): 883–898. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-016-9339-7.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ondercin, Heather Louise, and Mary Kate Lizotte. 2020. “You’ve Lost That Loving Feeling: How Gender Shapes Affective Polarization.” American Political Research 49 (3): 282–292. https://doi.org/10.1177/1532673X20972103.
   Google Scholar
• Phillips, Joseph. 2022. “Affective Polarization: Over Time, Through the Generations, and During the Lifespan.” Political Behavior 44 (3): 1483–1508. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-022-09784-4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rasch, Bjørn Erik. 1987. “Manipulation and Strategic Voting in the Norwegian Parliament.” Public Choice 52 (1): 57–73. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00116943.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reiljan, Andres. 2020. “‘Fear and Loathing Across Party Lines’ (Also) in Europe: Affective Polarisation in European Party Systems.” European Journal of Political Research 59 (2): 376–396. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6765.12351.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reiljan, Andres, and Alexander Ryan. 2021. “Ideological Tripolarization, Partisan Tribalism and Institutional Trust: The Foundations of Affective Polarization in the Swedish Multiparty System.” Scandinavian Political Studies 44 (2): 195–219. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9477.12194.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richardson, Bradley M. 1991. “European Party Loyalties Revisited.” American Political Science Review 85 (3): 751–775. https://doi.org/10.2307/1963849.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riker, William H., and Peter C. Ordeshook. 1968. “A Theory of the Calculus of Voting.” American Political Science Review 62 (1): 25–42. https://doi.org/10.2307/1953324.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rivas, Javier, and James Rockey. 2021. “Expressive Voting with Booing and Cheering: Evidence from Britain.” European Journal of Political Economy 67:101956. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2020.101956.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robinson, Joshua, and Rachel L. Moskowitz. 2019. “The Group Basis of Partisan Affective Polarization.” Journal of Politics 81 (3): 1075–1079. https://doi.org/10.1086/703069.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rogowski, Jon C., and Joseph L. Sutherland. 2016. “How Ideology Fuels Affective Polarization.” Political Behavior 38 (2): 485–508. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-015-9323-7.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rose, Richard, and Ian McAllister. 1992. “Expressive vs Instrumental Voting.” In Electoral Politics, edited by Dennis Kavanagh, 114–140. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
   Google Scholar
• Rose, Richard, and William Mishler. 1998. “Negative and Positive Party Identification in Post-Communist Countries.” Electoral Studies 17 (2): 217–234. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-3794(98)00016-X.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sherif, Raisa. 2022. “Why Do We Vote? Evidence on Expressive Voting.” Max Plank Institute for Tax Law and Public Finance Working Paper 2022-04.
   Google Scholar
• Simon, Herbert A. 1954. “Bandwagon and Underdog Effects and the Possibility of Election Predictions.” Public Opinion Quarterly 18 (3): 245–253. https://doi.org/10.1086/266513.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Southwell, Priscilla L. 1991. “Open Versus Closed Primaries: The Effect on Strategic Voting and Candidate Fortunes.” Social Science Quarterly 72 (4): 789–796.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tajfel, Henri, and John C. Turner. 1979. “An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict.” In The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations, edited by William G. Austin and Stephen Worchel, 33–47. Monterey, CA: Brooks-Cole.
   Google Scholar
• Tsebelis, George. 1986. “A General Model of Tactical and Inverse Tactical Voting.” British Journal of Political Science 16 (3): 395–404. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123400004464.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tullock, Gordon. 1971. “The Paradox of Revolution.” Public Choice 11 (1): 89–99. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01726214.
   Google Scholar
• Wagner, Markus. 2021. “Affective Polarization in Multiparty Systems.” Electoral Studies 69:102199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2020.102199.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ward, Dalston G., and Margit Tavits. 2019. “How Partisan Affect Shapes Citizens’ Perception of the Political World.” Electoral Studies 60:102045. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2019.04.009.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weber, Till. 2021. “Negative Voting and Party Polarization: A Classic Tragedy.” Electoral Studies 71:102335. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2021.102335.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webster, Steven W., and Alan I. Abramowitz. 2017. “The Ideological Foundations of Affective Polarization in the U.S. Electorate.” American Political Research 45 (4): 621–647. https://doi.org/10.1177/1532673X17703132.
   Google Scholar
• Weir, Blair T. 1975. “The Distortion of Voter Recall.” American Journal of Political Science 19 (1): 53–62. https://doi.org/10.2307/2110693.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar