Empathy and enduring depersonalization: The role of self-related processes

References

• Adolphs , R. , Damasio , H. , Tranel , D. , Cooper , G. and Damasio , A. R. 2000 . A role for somatosensory cortices in the visual recognition of emotion as revealed by three-dimensional lesion mapping . Journal of Neuroscience , 20 ( 7 ) : 2683 – 2690 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association . ( 1994 ). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.) . Washington, DC : Author .
   Google Scholar
• Baker , D. , Hunter , E. , Lawrence , E. , Medford , N. C. , Patel , M. Senior , C. 2003 . Depersonalization disorder: Clinical features of 204 cases . British Journal of Psychiatry , 182 : 428 – 433 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baron-Cohen , S. and Wheelwright , S. 2004 . The Empathy Quotient: An investigation of adults with Asperger's syndrome or high functioning autism, and normal sex differences . Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders , 34 ( 2 ) : 163 – 175 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baron-Cohen , S. , Wheelwright , S. , Hill , J. , Raste , Y. and Plumb , I. 2001 . The Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test revised version: A study with normal adults, and adults with Asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism . Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry & Allied Disciplines , 42 ( 2 ) : 241 – 251 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barrett , J. and Paus , T. 2002 . Affect-induced changes in speech production . Experimental Brain Research , 146 : 531 – 537 .
   Google Scholar
• Batson , C. , Early , S. and Salvarani , G. 1997 . Perspective-taking: Imagining how another feels versus imagining how you would feel . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 23 ( 7 ) : 751 – 758 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Batson , C. , Lishner , D. , Carpenter , A. , Harjusola-Webb , S. , Stocks , E. Hassan , O. 2003 . As you would have them do unto you: Does imagining yourself in the other's place stimulate moral action? . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 29 ( 9 ) : 1190 – 1201 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Batson , C. D. , Fultz , J. Schoenrade , P. A. 1987 . Distress and empathy: Two qualitatively distinct vicarious emotions with different motivational consequences . Journal of Personality , 55 ( 1 ) : 19 – 39 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beck , A. T. , Epstein , N. and Brown , G. 1988a . An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: Psychometric properties . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 56 ( 6 ) : 893 – 897 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beck , A. T. , Steer , R. A. and Garbin , M. G. 1988b . Psychometric properties of the Beck Depression Inventory: Twenty-five years of evaluation . Clinical Psychology Review , 8 : 77 – 100 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bernstein , E. M. and Putnam , F. W. 1986 . Development, reliability, and validity of a dissociation scale . Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease , 174 ( 12 ) : 727 – 735 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breitenstein , C. , Van Lancker , D. and Daum , I. 2001 . The contribution of speech rate and pitch variation to the perception of vocal emotions in a German and an American sample . Cognition and Emotion , 15 ( 1 ) : 57 – 79 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carlson , E. B. and Putnam , F. W. 1993 . An update on the dissociative experiences scale . Dissociation: Progress in the Dissociative Disorders , 6 ( 1 ) : 16 – 27 .
   Google Scholar
• Carlson , E. B. , Putnam , F. W. , Anderson , G. , Clark , P. , Torem , M. Coons , P. 1991 . Factor analysis of the dissociative experiences scale: A multi-center study , Chicago : Rush Presbyterian .
   Google Scholar
• Cook , N. D. 2003 . Tone of voice and mind: The connections between intonation, emotion, cognition and consciousness . Advances in Consciousness Research , 47 : 97 – 99 .
   Google Scholar
• Critchley , H. D. , Wiens , S. , Rotshtein , P. , Öhman , A. Dolan , R. 2004 . Neural systems supporting interoceptive awareness . Nature Neuroscience , 7 ( 2 ) : 189 – 195 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis , M. 1980 . A multidimensional approach to individual differences in empathy . Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology , 10 ( 4 ) : 85
   Google Scholar
• Davis , M. , Conklin , L. , Smith , A. and Luce , C. 1996 . Effect of perspective-taking on the cognitive representation of persons: A merging of self and other . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 70 ( 4 ) : 713 – 726 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis , M. , Soderlund , T. , Cole , J. , Gadol , E. , Kute , M. Myers , M. 2004 . Cognitions associated with attempts to empathize: How do we imagine the perspective of another? . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 30 ( 12 ) : 1625 – 1635 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis , M. H. 1994 . Empathy: A social psychological approach , Dubuque, IA : Brown & Benchmark .
   Google Scholar
• Decety , J. and Grezes , J. 2006 . The power of simulation: Imagining one's own and other's behaviour . Brain Research , 1079 : 4 – 14 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Decety , J. and Jackson , P. 2004 . The functional architecture of human empathy . Behavioural and Cognitive Neuroscience Reviews , 3 ( 2 ) : 71 – 100 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Decety , J. and Sommerville , J. 2003 . Shared representations between self and other: a social cognitive neuroscience view . Trends in Cognitive Sciences , 7 ( 12 ) : 527 – 533 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fenigstein , A. and Abrams , D. 1993 . Self-attention and the egocentric assumption of shared perspectives . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 29 ( 4 ) : 287 – 303 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gallagher , S. 2005 . How the body shapes the mind , Oxford, , UK : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Gallese , V. and Goldman , A. 1998 . Mirror neurones and the simulation theory of mind-reading . Trends in Cognitive Sciences , 2 ( 12 ) : 493 – 501 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Godfrey , H. P. and Knight , R. G. 1984 . The validity of actometer and speech activity measures in the assessment of depressed patients . British Journal of Psychiatry , 145 : 159 – 163 .
   Google Scholar
• Harrison , N. , Singer , T. , Rotshtein , P. , Dolan , R. and Critchley , H. 2006 . Pupillary contagion: Central mechanisms engaged in sadness processing . Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience , 1 : 5 – 17 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heims , H. C. , Critchley , H. D. , Dolan , R. , Mathias , L. and Cipolotti , L. 2004 . Social and motivational functioning is not critically dependent on feedback of autonomic responses: neuropsychological evidence from patients with pure autonomic failure . Neuropsychologia , 42 : 1979 – 1988 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Houston , D. 1990 . Empathy and the self: Cognitive and emotional influences on the evaluation of negative affect in others . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 59 ( 5 ) : 859 – 868 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunter , E. , Phillips , M. , Chalder , T. , Sierra , M. and David , A. S. 2003 . Depersonalisation disorder: A cognitive-behavioural conceptualization . Behavior Research and Therapy , 41 ( 12 ) : 1451 – 1467 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunter , E. C. , Baker , D. , Phillips , M. , Sierra , M. and David , A. S. 2005 . Cognitive behaviour therapy for depersonalisation disorder: An open study . Behaviour Research and Therapy , 43 ( 9 ) : 1121 – 1130 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalisch , R. , Wiech , K. , Critchley , H. , Seymour , B. , O'Doherty , J. Oakley , D. 2005 . Anxiety reduction through detachment: Subjective, physiological, and neural effects . Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience , 17 ( 6 ) : 874 – 883 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kilner , J. , Paulignan , Y. Blakemore , S. J. 2003 . An interference effect of observed biological movement on action . Current Biology , 13 : 522 – 525 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kucharska-Pietura , K. , Phillips , M. L. , Gernand , W. and David , A. S. 2003 . Perception of emotions from faces and voices following unilateral brain damage . Neuropsychologia , 41 ( 8 ) : 1082 – 1090 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lambert , M. V. , Senior , C. , Fewtrell , W. , Phillips , M. and David , A. S. 2001 . Primary and secondary depersonalisation disorder: a psychometric study . Journal of Affective Disorders , 63 : 249 – 256 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lamm , C. , Batson , C. and Decenty , J. 2007 . The neural substrate of human empathy: Effects of perspective-taking and cognitive appraisal . Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience , 19 ( 1 ) : 42 – 58 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Langdon , R. , Coltheart , M. , Ward , P. and Catts , S. 2001 . Visual and cognitive perspective-taking impairments in schizophrenia: a failure of allocentric simulation? . Cognitive Neuropsychiatry , 6 ( 4 ) : 241 – 269 .
   Google Scholar
• Lawrence , E. J. ( 2004 ). Empathy: Cognitive and neural correlates . Doctoral thesis, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London.
   Google Scholar
• Lawrence , E. J. , Shaw , P. , Baker , D. , Baron-Cohen , S. and David , A. S. 2004 . Measuring empathy—reliability and validity of the Empathy Quotient . Psychological Medicine , 34 ( 5 ) : 911 – 919 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawrence , E. J. , Shaw , P. , Giampietro , V. , Surguladze , S. , Brammer , M. and David , A. S. 2006 . The role of “shared representations” in social perception and empathy: An fMRI study . NeuroImage , 29 : 1173 – 1184 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loehlin , J. and Nichols , R. 1976 . Heredity, environment and personality: A study of 850 sets of twins , Austin, TX : University of Texas Press .
   Google Scholar
• Mauss , I. , Wilhelm , F. and Gross , J. 2004 . Is there less to social anxiety than meets the eye? Emotion experience, expression and bodily responding . Cognition and Emotion , 18 ( 5 ) : 631 – 662 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKenna , F. P. , & Lewis , C. ( 1994 ). A speech rate measure of laboratory induced affect: The role of demand characteristics revisited . British Journal of Clinical Psychology , 33 ( 3 ), 345 – 351 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Medford , N. , Brierley , B. , Brammer , M. , Bullmore , E. T. and David , A. S. 2006 . Emotional memory in depersonalization disorder: a functional MRI study . Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging , 148 : 93 – 102 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Michal , M. , Kaufhold , J. , Overbeck , G. and Grabhorn , R. 2006 . Narcissistic regulation of the self and interpersonal problems in depersonalized patients . Psychopathology , 39 : 192 – 198 .
   Google Scholar
• Muncer , S. and Ling , J. 2006 . Psychometric analysis of the empathy quotient (EQ) scale . Personality & Individual Differences , 40 : 1111 – 1119 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson , H. E. 1982 . National Adult Reading Test (NART): Test manual , Windsor, , UK : NFER-Nelson .
   Google Scholar
• Noyes , R. and Kletti , R. 1977 . Depersonalization in response to life-threatening danger . Comprehensive Psychiatry , 18 ( 4 ) : 375 – 384 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ochsner , K. and Gross , J. 2005 . The cognitive control of emotion . Trends in Cognitive Sciences , 9 : 242 – 249 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parkinson , B. and Manstead , A. 1993 . Making sense of emotion in stories and social life . Cognition and Emotion , 7 ( 3/4 ) : 295 – 323 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phillips , M. L. , Medford , N. , Senior , C. , Bullmore , E. T. , Suckling , J. Brammer , M. J. 2001 . Depersonalization disorder: Thinking without feeling . Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging , 108 ( 3 ) : 145 – 160 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pollatos , O. , Gramman , K. and Schandry , R. 2007 . Neural systems connecting interoceptive awareness and feelings . Human Brain Mapping , 28 : 9 – 18 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramnani , N. and Miall , C. 2004 . A system in the human brain for predicting the actions of others . Nature Neuroscience , 7 ( 1 ) : 85 – 90 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richell , R. , Mitchell , D. , Newman , C. , Leonard , A. , Baron-Cohen , S. and Blair , J. 2003 . Theory of mind and psychopathy: Can psychopathic individuals read the “language of the eyes”? . Neuropsychologia , 41 : 523 – 526 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ross , E. D. , Thompson , R. D. and Yenkosky , J. 1997 . Lateralization of affective prosody in brain and the callosal integration of hemispheric language functions . Brain and Language , 56 : 27 – 54 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruby , P. and Decety , J. 2004 . How would you feel versus how do you think she would feel? A neuroimaging study of perspective-taking with social emotions . Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience , 16 ( 6 ) : 988 – 999 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scherer , K. 1995 . Expression of emotion in voice and music . Journal of Voice , 9 ( 3 ) : 235 – 248 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siegman , A. W. and Boyle , S. 1993 . Voices of fear and anxiety and sadness and depression: The effects of speech rate and loudness on fear and anxiety and sadness and depression . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 102 ( 3 ) : 430 – 437 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sierra , M. , Baker , D. , Medford , N. and David , A. S. 2005 . Unpacking the depersonalization syndrome: An exploratory factor analysis on the Cambridge Depersonalization . Psychological Medicine , 35 : 1523 – 1532 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sierra , M. and Berrios , G. 1998 . Depersonalization: neurobiological perspectives . Biological Psychiatry , 44 : 898 – 908 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sierra , M. , Gomez , J. , Molina , J. , Luque , R. , Muñoz , J. and David , A. 2006a . Depersonalization in psychiatric patients: A transcultural study . Journal of Nervous and Mental Illness , 194 ( 5 ) : 356 – 361 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sierra , M. , Senior , C. , Dalton , J. , McDonough , M. , Bond , A. Phillips , M. L. 2002 . Autonomic response in depersonalization disorder . Archives of General Psychiatry , 59 ( 9 ) : 833 – 838 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sierra , M. , Senior , C. , Phillips , M. and David , A. 2006b . Autonomic response in the perception of disgust and happiness in depersonalization disorder . Psychiatry Research , 145 : 225 – 231 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silvia , P. J. and Abele , A. E. 2002 . Can positive affect induce self-focused attention? Methodological and measurement issues . Cognition and Emotion , 16 ( 6 ) : 845 – 853 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simeon , D. , Guralnik , O. , Gross , S. , Stein , D. J. , Schmeidler , J. and Hollander , E. 1998 . The detection and measurement of depersonalization disorder . Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease , 186 ( 9 ) : 536 – 542 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanton , B. R. , David , A. S. , Cleary , A. J. , Sierra , M. , Lambert , M. V. Phillips , M. J. 2001 . Basal activity of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis in patients with depersonalization disorder . Psychiatry Research: neuroimaging , 104 ( 1 ) : 85 – 89 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teasdale , J. D. and Fogarty , S. J. 1979 . Differential effects of induced mood on retrieval of pleasant and unpleasant events from episodic memory . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 88 ( 3 ) : 248 – 257 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teasdale , J. D. , Fogarty , S. J. and Wiliams , M. 1980 . Speech rate as a measure of short term variation in depression . British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology , 19 : 271 – 278 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vogeley , K. and Fink , G. R. 2003 . Neural correlates of first person perspective . Trends in Cognitive Sciences , 7 ( 1 ) : 38 – 42 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiens , S. 2005 . Interoception in emotional experience . Current Opinion in Neurology , 18 : 442 – 447 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wing , J. K. , Cooper , J. E. and Sartorius , N. 1974 . The Measurement and Classification of Psychiatric Symptoms , London : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar