Acute respiratory distress syndrome and multiple organ dysfunction: a story of intricate relationships

References

• Deitch EA. Multiple organ failure. Pathophysiology and potential future therapy. Ann Surg 1992; 216: 117–34
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marshall JC, Cook DJ, Christou NV, Bernard GR, Sprung CL, Sibbald WJ. Multiple organ dysfunction score: a reliable descriptor of a complex clinical outcome. Crit Care Med 1995; 23: 1638–52
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slutsky AS. Lung injury caused by mechanical ventilation. Chest 1999; 116(1 Suppl)9–15S
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vincent JL, de Mendonca A, Cantraine F, Moreno R, Takala J, Suter PM, et al. Use of the SOFA score to assess the incidence of organ dysfunction/failure in intensive care units: results of a multicenter, prospective study. Working group on “sepsis-related problems” of the European Society of Intensive Care Medicine. Crit Care Med 1998; 26: 1793–800
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bolton CF. Sepsis and the systemic inflammatory response syndrome: neuromuscular manifestations. Crit Care Med 1996; 24: 1408–16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knaus WA, Draper EA, Wagner DP, Zimmerman JE. Prognosis in acute organ-system failure. Ann Surg 1985; 202: 685–92
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American College of Chest Physicians/Society of Critical Care Medicine Consensus Conference. Definitions for sepsis and multiple organ failure and guidelines for the use of innovative therapies in sepsis. Crit Care Med 1992;20:864–74.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bernard GR, Artigas A, Brigham KL, Carlet J, Falke K, Hudson L, Lamy M, et al. The American–European Consensus Conference on ARDS: definitions, mechanisms, relevant outcomes, and clinical trial coordination. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994; 149: 818–24
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Estenssoro E, Dubin A, Laffaire E, Canales H, Saenz G, Moseinco M, et al. Incidence, clinical course, and outcome in 217 patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med 2002; 30: 2450–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brun-Buisson C, Minelli C, Bertolini G, Brazzi L, Pimentel J, Lewandowski K, et al. ALIVE Study Group. Epidemiology and outcome of acute lung injury in European intensive care units. Results from the ALIVE study. Intensive Care Med 2004; 30: 51–61
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rotstein O. Modeling the two hit hypothesis for evaluating strategies to prevent organ injury after shock/resuscitation. J Trauma 2003; 54: 203–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Montgomery AB, Stager MA, Carrico CJ, Hudson LD. Causes of mortality in patients with the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am Rev Respir Dis 1985; 146: 486–9
   Google Scholar
• Ferring M, Vincent JL. Is outcome from ARDS related to the severity of respiratory failure?. Eur Respir J 1997; 10: 1297–300
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doyle RL, Szaflarski N, Modin GW, Wiener-Kronish JP, Matthay MA. Identification of patients with acute lung injury. Predictors of mortality. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 152: 1818–24
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flaatten H, Gjerde S, Guttormsen AB, Haugen O, Hoivik T, Onarheim H, Aardal S. Outcome after acute respiratory failure is more dependent on dysfunction in other vital organs than on the severity of the respiratory failure. Crit Care 2003; 7(4)R72
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ware LB. Prognostic determinants of acute respiratory distress syndrome in adults: impact on clinical trial design. Crit Care Med 2005; 33: S217–22
   Google Scholar
• Meduri GU, Kohler G, Headley S, Tolley E, Stentz F, Postlethwaite A. Inflammatory cytokines in the BAL of patients with ARDS. Persistent elevation over time predicts poor outcome. Chest 1995; 108: 1303–14
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network. Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 2000; 342:1301–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ranieri, VM, Suter, PM, Tortorella, C, De Tullio, R, Dayer, JM, Brienza, A, , et al. Effect of mechanical ventilation on inflammatory mediators in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 1999, 7;282:54–61.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hotchkiss RS, Karl IE. The pathophysiology and treatment of sepsis. N Engl J Med 2003; 348: 138–50
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zeni F, Freeman B, Natanson C. Anti-inflammatory therapies to treat sepsis and septic shock: a reassessment. Crit Care Med 1997; 25: 1095–100
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bone RC, Grodzin CJ, Balk RA. Sepsis: a new hypothesis for pathogenesis of the disease process. Chest 1997; 112: 235–43
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donnelly, SC, Strieter, RM, Reid, PT, Kunkel, SL, Burdick, MD, Armstrong, I, , et al. The association between mortality rates and decreased concentrations of interleukin-10 and interleukin-1 receptor antagonist in the lung fluids of patients with the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Ann Intern Med 1996, 1;125:191–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Munford RS, Pugin J. Normal responses to injury prevent systemic inflammation and can be immunosuppressive. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001; 163: 316–21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evans, TW, Smithies, M. ABC of intensive care: organ dysfunction. BMJ 1999, 12;318:1606–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor, DE. Reviewing the motor of multiple organ dysfunction syndrome. Gut dysfunction in ARDS and multiorgan failure. Respir Care Clin N Am 1998;4:611–31, vii–viii.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Demling RH. The clinical relevance of defining the mechanism for altered gut permeability in a two-hit model of injury and infection. Crit Care Med 2004; 32: 2356–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fink M. Intestinal epithelial hyperpermeability update on the pathogenesis of gut mucosal barrier dysfunction in critical illness. Curr Opin Crit Care 2003; 9: 143–51
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Plotz FB, Slutsky AS, van Vught AJ, Heijnen CJ. Ventilator-induced lung injury and multiple system organ failure: a critical review of facts and hypotheses. Intensive Care Med 2004; 30: 1865–72
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• King CJ, Tytgat S, Delude RL, Fink MP. Ileal mucosal oxygen consumption is decreased in endotoxemic rats but is restored toward normal by treatment with aminoguanidine. Crit Care Med 1999; 27: 2518–24
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spronk PE, Ince C, Gardien MJ, Mathura KR, Oudemans-van Straaten HM, Zandstra DF. Nitroglycerin in septic shock after intravascular volume resuscitation. Lancet 2002; 360: 1395
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tugtekin IF, Radermacher P, Theisen M, Matejovic M, Stehr A, Ploner F, et al. Increased ileal–mucosal–arterial Pco2 gap is associated with impaired villus microcirculation in endotoxic pigs. Intensive Care Med 2001; 27: 757–66
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sakr Y, Dubois MJ, De Backer D, Creteur J, Vincent JL. Persistent microcirculatory alterations are associated with organ failure and death in patients with septic shock. Crit Care Med 2004; 32: 1825–31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rivers, E, Nguyen, B, Havstad, S, Ressler, J, Muzzin, A, Knoblich, B, , et al Early Goal-Directed Therapy Collaborative Group. Early goal-directed therapy in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock. N Engl J Med 2001; 8;345:1368–77.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buwalda M, Ince C. Opening the microcirculation: can vasodilators be useful in sepsis?. Intensive Care Med 2002; 28: 1208–17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hotchkiss RS, Swanson PE, Freeman BD, Tinsley KW, Cobb JP, Matuschak GM, et al. Apoptotic cell death in patients with sepsis, shock, and multiple organ dysfunction. Crit Care Med 1999; 27: 1230–51
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fink MP. Research: advances in cell biology relevant to critical illness. Curr Opin Crit Care 2004; 10: 279–91
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brealey, D, Brand, M, Hargreaves, I, Heales, S, Land, J, Smolenski, R, , et al. Association between mitochondrial dysfunction and severity and outcome of septic shock. Lancet 2002; 20;360:219–23.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boczkowski J, Lisdero CL, Lanone S, Samb A, Carreras MC, Boveris A, et al. Endogenous peroxynitrite mediates mitochondrial dysfunction in rat diaphragm during endotoxemia. FASEB J 1999; 1: 1637–46
   Google Scholar
• Han X, Fink MP, Yang R, Delude RL. Increased iNOS activity is essential for intestinal epithelial tight junction dysfunction in endotoxemic mice. Shock 2004; 21: 261–70
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhatia M, Moochhala S. Role of inflammatory mediators in the pathophysiology of acute respiratory distress syndrome. J Pathol 2004; 202: 145–56
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balk RA. Severe sepsis and septic shock. Definitions, epidemiology and clinical manifestations. Crit Care Clin 2000; 16: 179–92
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar