441
Views
6
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Updates in the management of hepatitis B in children

&
Pages 1065-1076 | Received 06 Aug 2019, Accepted 25 Oct 2019, Published online: 11 Nov 2019

References

  • WHO. Hepatitis B vaccines: WHO position paper–July 2017. Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 2017;92(27):369–392.
  • Ginzberg D, Wong RJ, Gish R. Global HBV burden: guesstimates and facts. Hepatol Int. 2018;12(4):315–329.
  • Immunization coverage. 2019. Who.int. [updated 24 Jul 2019, cited 2019 Jul 24]. Available from: https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/immunization-coverage.
  • Ni YH, Chang MH, Jan CF, et al. Continuing decrease in hepatitis B virus infection 30 years after initiation of infant vaccination program in Taiwan. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2016;14(9):1324–1330.
  • Yimnoi P, Posuwan N, Wanlapakorn N, et al. A molecular epidemiological study of the hepatitis B virus in Thailand after 22 years of universal immunization. J Med Virol. 2016;88(4):664–673.
  • Peto TJ, Mendy ME, Lowe Y, et al. Efficacy and effectiveness of infant vaccination against chronic hepatitis B in the gambia hepatitis intervention study (1986–90) and in the nationwide immunisation program. BMC Infect Dis. 2014;14(1):1–8.
  • Su WJ, Liu CC, Liu DP, et al. Effect of age on the incidence of acute hepatitis B after 25 years of a universal newborn hepatitis B immunization program in Taiwan. J Infect Dis. 2012;205(5):757–762.
  • Tosti ME, Alfonsi V, Lacorte E, et al. Acute hepatitis B after the implementation of universal vaccination in Italy: results from 22 years of surveillance (1993–2014). Clin Infect Dis. 2016;62(11):1412–1418.
  • Chen HL, Chang CJ, Kong MS, et al. Pediatric fulminant hepatic failure in endemic areas of hepatitis B infection: 15 years after universal hepatitis B vaccination. Hepatology. 2004;39(1):58–63.
  • Chang MH, You SL, Chen CJ, et al. Long-term effects of hepatitis B immunization of infants in preventing liver cancer. Gastroenterology. 2016;151(3):472–480.e471.
  • Fattovich G. Natural history of hepatitis B. J Hepatol. 2003;39:50–58.
  • Chang MH, Hsu HY, Hsu HC, et al. The significance of spontaneous hepatitis B e antigen seroconversion in childhood: with special emphasis on the clearance of hepatitis B e antigen before 3 years of age. HEPATOLOGY. 1995;22(5):1387–1392.
  • Kao JH, Chen PJ, Lai MY, et al. Hepatitis B virus genotypes and spontaneous hepatitis B e antigen seroconversion in Taiwanese hepatitis B carriers. J Med Virol. 2004;72(3):363–369.
  • Hong SJ, Park HJ, Chu MA, et al. The rate of conversion from immune-tolerant phase to early immune-clearance phase in children with chronic hepatitis B virus infection. Pediatr Gastroenterol Hepatol Nutr. 2014;17(1):41–46.
  • Chu CM, Liaw YF. Chronic hepatitis B virus infection acquired in childhood: special emphasis on prognostic and therapeutic implication of delayed HBeAg seroconversion. J Viral Hepat. 2007;14(3):147–152.
  • Wu JF, Tsai WY, Hsu HY, et al. The effect of puberty onset on spontaneous hepatitis B virus e antigen seroconversion in men. Gastroenterology. 2010;138:942–948.
  • Wu JF, Tsai WY, Tung YC, et al. Effect of menarche onset on the clinical course in females with chronic hepatitis B virus infection. J Pediatr. 2014;165:534–538.
  • Wu JF, Chen CH, Hsieh RP, et al. HLA typing associated with hepatitis B E antigen seroconversion in children with chronic hepatitis B virus infection: a long-term prospective sibling cohort study in Taiwan. J Pediatr. 2006;148(5):647–651.
  • Wu JF, Wu TC, Chen CH, et al. Serum levels of interleukin 10 and 12 predict early, spontaneous hepatitis B virus e antigen seroconversion. Gastroenterology. 2010;138:165–172.
  • Wu JF, Chen CH, Ni YH, et al. Toll-like receptor and hepatitis B virus clearance in chronic infected patients: a long-term prospective cohort study in Taiwan. J Infect Dis. 2012;206:662–668.
  • Ni YH, Chang MH, Hsu HY, et al. Longitudinal study on mutation profiles of core promoter and precore regions of the hepatitis B virus genome in children. Pediatr Res. 2004;56(3):396–399.
  • Wu JF, Ni YH, Lin YT, et al. Human interleukin-10 genotypes are associated with different precore/core gene mutation patterns in children with chronic hepatitis B virus infection. J Pediatr. 2011;158:808–813.
  • Chen HL, Lin LH, Hu FC, et al. Effects of maternal screening and universal immunization to prevent mother-to-infant transmission of HBV. Gastroenterology. 2012;142(4):773–781.
  • Chen HL, Lee CN, Chang CH, et al. Efficacy of maternal tenofovir disoproxil fumarate in interrupting mother-to-infant transmission of hepatitis B virus. Hepatology. 2015;62(2):375–386.
  • Bisceglie AM, Lok AS, Martin P, et al. Recent US food and drug administration warnings on hepatitis B reactivation with immune‐suppressing and anticancer drugs: just the tip of the iceberg? Hepatology. 2015;61(2):703–711.
  • Hepatitis B management during immunosuppression for haematological and solid-organ malignancies: An Australian consensus statement 2019. Asid.net.au. [Updated 24 Jul 2019, cited 2019 Jul 24]. Available from: https://www.asid.net.au/documents/item/1745
  • Sokal EM, Paganelli M, Wirth S, et al. Management of chronic hepatitis B in childhood: ESPGHAN clinical practice guidelines. J Hepatol. 2013;59(4):814–829.
  • Lampertico P, Agarwal K, Berg T, et al. EASL 2017 clinical practice guidelines on the management of hepatitis B virus infection. J Hepatol. 2017;67(2):370–398.
  • Ovchinsky N, Moreira RK, Lefkowitch JH, et al. The liver biopsy in modern clinical practice: A pediatric point-of-view. Adv Anat Pathol. 2012;19(4):250.
  • Pokorska-Spiewak M, Kowalik-Mikolajewska B, Aniszewska M, et al. Is liver biopsy still needed in children with chronic viral hepatitis? World J Gastroenterol. 2015;21(42):12141–12149.
  • McGoogan KE, Smith PB, Choi SS, et al. Performance of the AST-to-platelet ratio index as a noninvasive marker of fibrosis in pediatric patients with chronic viral hepatitis. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2010;50(3):344–346.
  • Jin W, Lin Z, Xin Y, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of the aspartate aminotransferase-to-platelet ratio index for the prediction of hepatitis B-related fibrosis: a leading meta-analysis. BMC Gastroenterol. 2012;12(1):14.
  • Lee CK, Perez-Atayde AR, Mitchell PD, et al. Serum biomarkers and transient elastography as predictors of advanced liver fibrosis in a United States cohort: the Boston children’s hospital experience. J Pediatr. 2013;163(4):1058–1064 e1052.
  • Pokorska-Spiewak M, Kowalik-Mikolajewska B, Aniszewska M, et al. Non-invasive evaluation of the liver disease severity in children with chronic viral hepatitis using FibroTest and ActiTest - comparison with histopathological assessment. Clin Exp Hepatol. 2017;3(4):187–193.
  • Wu JF, Song SH, Lee CS, et al. Clinical predictors of liver fibrosis in patients with chronic hepatitis B virus infection from children to adults. J Infect Dis. 2018;217(9):1408–1416.
  • Fitzpatrick E, Quaglia A, Vimalesvaran S, et al. Transient elastography is a useful noninvasive tool for the evaluation of fibrosis in paediatric chronic liver disease. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2013;56(1):72–76.
  • Tutar O, Beser OF, Adaletli I, et al. Shear wave elastography in the evaluation of liver fibrosis in children. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2014;58(6):750–755.
  • Dietrich C, Sirli R, Ferraioli G, et al. Current knowledge in ultrasound-based liver elastography of pediatric patients. Appl Sci. 2018;8(6):944–962.
  • Wen WH, Chang MH, Hsu HY, et al. The development of hepatocellular carcinoma among prospectively followed children with chronic hepatitis B virus infection. J Pediatr. 2004;144(3):397–399.
  • Khanna R, Verma SK. Pediatric hepatocellular carcinoma. World J Gastroenterol. 2018;24(35):3980.
  • Ni YH, Chang MH, Wang KJ, et al. Clinical relevance of hepatitis B virus genotype in children with chronic infection and hepatocellular carcinoma. Gastroenterology. 2004;127(6):1733–1738.
  • Lee MH, Yang HI, Liu J, et al. Prediction models of long-term cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma risk in chronic hepatitis B patients: risk scores integrating host and virus profiles. Hepatology. 2013;58(2):546–554.
  • Kennedy PTF, Sandalova E, Jo J, et al. Preserved T-cell function in children and young adults with immune-tolerant chronic hepatitis B. Gastroenterology. 2012;143(3):637–645.
  • Milich DR. The concept of immune tolerance in chronic hepatitis B virus infection is alive and well. Gastroenterology. 2016;151(5):801–804.
  • Mason WS, Gill US, Litwin S, et al. HBV DNA integration and clonal hepatocyte expansion in chronic hepatitis B patients considered immune tolerant. Gastroenterology. 2016;151(5):986–998.
  • Chang MH, Chen PJ, Chen JY, et al. Hepatitis B virus integration in hepatitis B virus related hepatocellular carcinoma in childhood. HEPATOLOGY. 1991;13(2):316–320.
  • Shafritz DA, Shouval D, Sherman HI, et al. Integration of hepatitis B virus DNA into the genome of liver cells in chronic liver disease and hepatocellular carcinoma. N Engl J Med. 1981;305(18):1067–1073.
  • Zhu S, Zhang H, Dong Y, et al. Antiviral therapy in hepatitis B virus-infected children with immune-tolerant characteristics: A pilot open-label randomized study. J Hepatol. 2018;68(6):1123–1128.
  • D’Antiga L, Aw M, Atkins M, et al. Combined lamivudine/interferon-alpha treatment in “immunotolerant” children perinatally infected with hepatitis B: a pilot study. J Pediatr. 2006;148(2):228–233.
  • Poddar U, Yachha SK, Agarwal J, et al. Cure for immune-tolerant hepatitis B in children: is it an achievable target with sequential combo therapy with lamivudine and interferon? J Viral Hepat. 2013;20(5):311–316.
  • Rosenthal P, Ling SC, Belle SH, et al. Combination of entecavir/peginterferon alfa-2a in children with hepatitis B e antigen-positive immune tolerant chronic hepatitis B virus infection. Hepatology. 2019;69(6):2326–2337.
  • Feld JJ, Terrault NA, Lin HHS, et al. Entecavir and peginterferon alfa-2a in adults with HBeAg-positive immune tolerant chronic hepatitis B virus infection. Hepatology. 2019;69(6):2338–2348.
  • Kim GA, Lim YS, Han S, et al. High risk of hepatocellular carcinoma and death in patients with immune-tolerant-phase chronic hepatitis B. Gut. 2018;67(5):945–952.
  • Sarin SK, Kumar M, Lau GK, et al. Asian-Pacific clinical practice guidelines on the management of hepatitis B: a 2015 update. Hepatol Int. 2016;10(1):1–98.
  • Terrault NA, Lok AS, McMahon BJ, et al. Update on prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of chronic hepatitis B: AASLD 2018 hepatitis B guidance. HEPATOLOGY. 2018;67(4):1560–1599.
  • Coffin CS, Fung SK, Alvarez F, et al. Management of hepatitis B virus infection: 2018 guidelines from the Canadian association for the study of liver disease and association of medical microbiology and infectious disease Canada. Can Liver J. 2018;1(4):156–217.
  • Hepatitis B (chronic) - NICE Pathways. Pathways.nice.org.uk. [Updated 24 Jul 2019, cited 2019 Jul 24]. Available from: https://pathways.nice.org.uk/pathways/hepatitis-b-chronic#path=view%3A/pathways/hepatitis-b-chronic/antiviral-treatment-for-chronic-hepatitis-b.xml&content=view-node%3Anodes-treatment-in-gchildren-and-young-people-with-compensated-liver-disease
  • Jonas MM, Lok ASF, McMahon BJ, et al. Antiviral therapy in management of chronic hepatitis B viral infection in children: A systematic review and meta‐analysis. Hepatology. 2016;63(1):307–318.
  • Ruiz Moreno M, Jimenez J, Porres JC, et al. A controlled trial of recombinant interferon-alpha in Caucasian children with chronic hepatitis B. Digestion. 1990;45(1):26–33.
  • Ruiz-Moreno M, Rua MJ, Molina J, et al. Prospective, randomized controlled trial of interferon-alpha in children with chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology. 1991;13(6):1035–1039.
  • Utili R, Sagnelli E, Galanti B, et al. Prolonged treatment of children with chronic hepatitis B with recombinant alpha 2a-interferon: a controlled, randomized study. Am J Gastroenterol. 1991;86(3):327–330.
  • Barbera C, Bortolotti F, Crivellaro C, et al. Recombinant interferon-α2a hastens the rate of HBeAg clearance in children with chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology. 1994;20(2):287–290.
  • Vajro P, Tedesco M, Fontanella A, et al. Prolonged and high dose recombinant interferon alpha-2b alone or after prednisone priming accelerates termination of active viral replication in children with chronic hepatitis B infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1996;15(3):223–231.
  • Sokal EM, Conjeevaram HS, Roberts EA, et al. Interferon alfa therapy for chronic hepatitis B in children: a multinational randomized controlled trial. Gastroenterology. 1998;114(5):988–995.
  • Jonas MM, Kelley DA, Mizerski J, et al. Clinical trial of lamivudine in children with chronic hepatitis B. N Engl J Med. 2002;346(22):1706–1713.
  • Jonas MM, Kelly D, Pollack H, et al. Safety, efficacy, and pharmacokinetics of adefovir dipivoxil in children and adolescents (age 2 to <18 years) with chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology. 2008;47(6):1863–1871.
  • Murray KF, Szenborn L, Wysocki J, et al. Randomized, placebo-controlled trial of tenofovir disoproxil fumarate in adolescents with chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology. 2012;56(6):2018–2026.
  • Wirth S, Zhang H, Hardikar W, et al. Efficacy and safety of Peginterferon Alfa-2a (40KD) in children with chronic hepatitis B: the PEG-B-ACTIVE study. Hepatology. 2018;68(5):1681–1694.
  • Wu JF, Su YR, Chen CH, et al. Predictive effect of serial serum alanine aminotransferase levels on spontaneous HBeAg seroconversion in chronic genotype B and C HBV-infected children. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2012;54(1):97–100.
  • Hsu HY, Tsai HY, Wu TC, et al. Interferon‐α treatment in children and young adults with chronic hepatitis B: a long‐term follow‐up study in Taiwan. Liver Int. 2008;28(9):1288–1297.
  • Sonneveld MJ, Hansen BE, Piratvisuth T, et al. Response-guided peginterferon therapy in hepatitis B e antigen-positive chronic hepatitis B using serum hepatitis B surface antigen levels. Hepatology. 2013;58(3):872–880.
  • Sonneveld MJ, Wong VWS, Woltman AM, et al. Polymorphisms near Il28B and serologic response to peginterferon in HBeAg-positive patients with chronic hepatitis B. Gastroenterology. 2012;142(3):513–520.e511.
  • Lampertico P, Viganò M, Cheroni C, et al. IL28B polymorphisms predict interferon‐related hepatitis B surface antigen seroclearance in genotype D hepatitis B e antigen–negative patients with chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology. 2013;57(3):890–896.
  • Domagalski K, Pawlowska M, Zalesna A, et al. Impact of IL28B and OAS gene family polymorphisms on interferon treatment response in Caucasian children chronically infected with hepatitis B virus. World J Gastroenterol. 2016;22(41):9186–9195.
  • Cheng L, Sun X, Tan S, et al. Effect of HLA-DP and IL28B gene polymorphisms on response to interferon treatment in hepatitis B e-antigen seropositive chronic hepatitis B patients. Hepatol Res. 2014;44(9):1000–1007.
  • Tangkijvanich P, Chittmittraprap S, Poovorawan K, et al. A randomized clinical trial of peginterferon alpha-2b with or without entecavir in patients with HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis B: role of host and viral factors associated with treatment response. J Viral Hepat. 2016;23(6):427–438.
  • Boglione L, Cusato J, De Nicolo A, et al. Role of CYP27B1+2838 promoter polymorphism in the treatment of chronic hepatitis B HBeAg negative with PEG-interferon. J Viral Hepat. 2015;22(3):318–327.
  • Thanapirom K, Suksawatamnuay S, Sukeepaisarnjareon W, et al. Genetic variation in the vitamin D pathway CYP2R1 gene predicts sustained HBeAg seroconversion in chronic hepatitis B patients treated with pegylated interferon: A multicenter study. PLoS One. 2017;12(3):e0173263.
  • Limothai U, Chuaypen N, Khlaiphuengsin A, et al. Association of vitamin-D-related genetic variations and treatment response to pegylated interferon in patients with chronic hepatitis B. Antivir Ther. 2017;22(8):681–688.
  • Sokal EM, Kelly DA, Mizerski J, et al. Long‐term lamivudine therapy for children with HBeAg‐positive chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology. 2006;43(2):225–232.
  • Jonas MM, Kelly D, Pollack H, et al. Efficacy and safety of long-term adefovir dipivoxil therapy in children with chronic hepatitis B infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2012;31(6):578–582.
  • Jonas MM, Chang MH, Sokal E, et al. Randomized, controlled trial of entecavir versus placebo in children with hepatitis B envelope antigen–positive chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology. 2016;63(2):377–387.
  • Andreone P, Gramenzi A, Cursaro C, et al. High risk of hepatocellular carcinoma in anti-HBe positive liver cirrhosis patients developing lamivudine resistance. J Viral Hepat. 2004;11(5):439–442.
  • Lai MW, Huang SF, Hsu CW, et al. Identification of nonsense mutations in hepatitis B virus S gene in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma developed after lamivudine therapy. Antivir Ther. 2009;14(2):249–261.
  • Lin SM, Yu ML, Lee CM, et al. Interferon therapy in HBeAg positive chronic hepatitis reduces progression to cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. J Hepatol. 2007;46(1):45–52.
  • Liang KH, Hsu CW, Chang ML, et al. Peginterferon is superior to nucleos(t)ide analogues for prevention of hepatocellular carcinoma in chronic hepatitis B. J Infect Dis. 2016;213(6):966–974.
  • Enomoto H, Tao L, Eguchi R, et al. The in vivo antitumor effects of type I-interferon against hepatocellular carcinoma: the suppression of tumor cell growth and angiogenesis. Sci Rep. 2017;7(1):12189.
  • Bortolotti F, Guido M, Bartolacci S, et al. Chronic hepatitis B in children after e antigen seroclearance: final report of a 29-year longitudinal study. HEPATOLOGY. 2006;43(3):556–562.
  • Wu JF, Chiu YC, Chang KC, et al. Predictors of hepatitis B e antigen-negative hepatitis in chronic hepatitis B virus-infected patients from childhood to adulthood. Hepatology. 2016;63(1):74–82.
  • Hsu YS, Chien RN, Yeh CT, et al. Long-term outcome after spontaneous HBeAg seroconversion in patients with chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology. 2002;35(6):1522–1527.
  • Tseng TC, Liu CJ, Su TH, et al. Young chronic hepatitis B patients with nucleos(t)ide analogue-induced hepatitis B e antigen seroconversion have a higher risk of HBV reactivation. J Infect Dis. 2012;206(10):1521–1531.
  • Liaw YF, Leung N, Kao JH, et al. Asian-Pacific consensus statement on the management of chronic hepatitis B: a 2008 update. Hepatol Int. 2008;2(3):263–283.
  • Liaw YF, Kao JH, Piratvisuth T, et al. Asian-Pacific consensus statement on the management of chronic hepatitis B: a 2012 update. Hepatol Int. 2012;6(3):531–561.
  • Jeng WJ, Chen YC, Chien RN, et al. Incidence and predictors of hepatitis B surface antigen seroclearance after cessation of nucleos(t)ide analogue therapy in hepatitis B e antigen-negative chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology. 2018;68(2):425–434.
  • Hadziyannis SJ, Sevastianos V, Rapti I, et al. Sustained responses and loss of HBsAg in HBeAg-negative patients with chronic hepatitis B who stop long-term treatment with adefovir. Gastroenterology. 2012;143(3):629–636 e621.
  • Papatheodoridis G, Vlachogiannakos I, Cholongitas E, et al. Discontinuation of oral antivirals in chronic hepatitis B: A systematic review. Hepatology. 2016;63(5):1481–1492.
  • Marcellin P, Gane E, Buti M, et al. Regression of cirrhosis during treatment with tenofovir disoproxil fumarate for chronic hepatitis B: a 5-year open-label follow-up study. Lancet. 2013;381(9865):468–475.
  • Liem KS, Fung S, Wong DK, et al. Limited sustained response after stopping nucleos(t)ide analogues in patients with chronic hepatitis B: results from a randomised controlled trial (Toronto STOP study). Gut. 2019:1–8.
  • Berg T, Simon KG, Mauss S, et al. Long-term response after stopping tenofovir disoproxil fumarate in non-cirrhotic HBeAg-negative patients - FINITE study. J Hepatol. 2017;67(5):918–924.
  • Rijckborst V, Hansen BE, Cakaloglu Y, et al. Early on-treatment prediction of response to peginterferon alfa-2a for HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis B using HBsAg and HBV DNA levels. Hepatology. 2010;52(2):454–461.
  • Shapira R, Mor E, Bar-Nathan N, et al. Efficacy of lamivudine for the treatment of hepatitis B virus infection after liver transplantation in children. Transplantation. 2001;72(2):333–336.
  • Marzano A, Angelucci E, Andreone P, et al. Prophylaxis and treatment of hepatitis B in immunocompromised patients. Dig Liver Dis. 2007;39(5):397–408.
  • Huang H, Li X, Zhu J, et al. Entecavir vs lamivudine for prevention of hepatitis B virus reactivation among patients with untreated diffuse large B-cell lymphoma receiving R-CHOP chemotherapy: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2014;312(23):2521–2530.
  • Buti M, Manzano ML, Morillas RM, et al. Randomized prospective study evaluating tenofovir disoproxil fumarate prophylaxis against hepatitis B virus reactivation in anti-HBc-positive patients with rituximab-based regimens to treat hematologic malignancies: the Preblin study. PLoS One. 2017;12(9):e0184550.
  • Mozessohn L, Chan KK, Feld JJ, et al. Hepatitis B reactivation in HBsAg-negative/HBcAb-positive patients receiving rituximab for lymphoma: a meta-analysis. J Viral Hepat. 2015;22(10):842–849.
  • Hsu C, Tsou HH, Lin SJ, et al. Chemotherapy-induced hepatitis B reactivation in lymphoma patients with resolved HBV infection: a prospective study. Hepatology. 2014;59(6):2092–2100.
  • Pokorska-Spiewak M, Kowalik-Mikolajewska B, Aniszewska M, et al. The influence of hepatitis B and C virus coinfection on liver histopathology in children. Eur J Pediatr. 2015;174(3):345–353.
  • Liu CJ, Chuang WL, Lee CM, et al. Peginterferon alfa-2a plus ribavirin for the treatment of dual chronic infection with hepatitis B and C viruses. Gastroenterology. 2009;136(2):496–504. e493.
  • Liu CJ, Chuang WL, Sheen IS, et al. Efficacy of Ledipasvir and Sofosbuvir treatment of HCV infection in patients coinfected with HBV. Gastroenterology. 2018;154(4):989–997.
  • Guidelines for the care and treatment of persons diagnosed with chronic hepatitis C virus infection. World Health Organization. [Updated 23 Jul 2019, cited 2019 Jul 23]. Available from: https://www.who.int/hepatitis/publications/hepatitis-c-guidelines-2018/en/
  • Xue MM, Glenn JS, Leung DH. Hepatitis D in children. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2015;61(3):271–281.
  • Marco VD, Giacchino R, Timitilli A, et al. Long-term interferon-α treatment of children with chronic hepatitis delta: a multicentre study. J Viral Hepat. 1996;3(3):123–128.
  • Heidrich B, Manns MP, Wedemeyer H. Treatment options for hepatitis delta virus infection. Curr Infect Dis Rep. 2013;15(1):31–38.
  • Healy SA, Gupta S, Melvin AJ. HIV/HBV coinfection in children and antiviral therapy. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2013;11(3):251–263.
  • Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in pediatric HIV infection. Panel on antiretroviral therapy and medical management of children living with HIV. AIDSinfo.nih.gov. [Updated 23 Jul 2019, cited 2019 Jul 23]. Available from: https://aidsinfo.nih.gov/contentfiles/lvguidelines/pediatricguidelines.pdf
  • Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents living with HIV. US Department of Health & Human Services. AIDSinfo.nih.gov. [Updated 23 Jul 2019, cited 2019 Jul 23]. Available from: https://aidsinfo.nih.gov/guidelines/html/1/adult-and-adolescent-arv/0
  • Aurpibul L, Lumbiganon P, Kolasaraksa P, et al. HIV and Hepatitis B coinfection among perinatally HIV-infected Thai adolescents. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2012;31(9):943–947.
  • Rouet F, Chaix ML, Inwoley A, et al. Frequent occurrence of chronic hepatitis B virus infection among West African HIV type-1-infected children. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;46(3):361–366.
  • Hepatitis B Virus Pediatric Opportunistic Infection. AIDSinfo. [updated 24 Jul 2019, cited 2019 Jul 24]. Available from: https://aidsinfo.nih.gov/guidelines/html/5/pediatric-opportunistic-infection/403/hepatitis-b-virus
  • Han GR, Cao MK, Zhao W, et al. A prospective and open-label study for the efficacy and safety of telbivudine in pregnancy for the prevention of perinatal transmission of hepatitis B virus infection. J Hepatol. 2011;55(6):1215–1221.
  • Pan CQ, Duan Z, Dai E, et al. Tenofovir to prevent hepatitis B transmission in mothers with high viral load. N Engl J Med. 2016;374(24):2324–2334.
  • Jourdain G, Ngo-Giang-Huong N, Harrison L, et al. Tenofovir versus placebo to prevent perinatal transmission of hepatitis B. N Engl J Med. 2018;378(10):911–923.
  • Global Health Sector Strategies on Viral Hepatitis 2016-2021. World health organization. [updated 13 Oct 2019, cited 2019 Oct 13]. Available from: https://www.who.int/hepatitis/strategy2016-2021/ghss-hep/en/
  • Chen HL, Wen WH, Chang MH. Management of pregnant women and children: focusing on preventing mother-to-infant transmission. J Infect Dis. 2017;216(suppl_8):S785–S791.
  • Lok AS, Zoulim F, Dusheiko G, et al. Hepatitis B cure: from discovery to regulatory approval. Hepatology. 2017;66(4):1296–1313.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.