458
Views
24
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Epidemiology and risk factors for eosinophilic esophagitis: lessons for clinicians

ORCID Icon & ORCID Icon
Pages 1069-1082 | Received 05 Jun 2020, Accepted 03 Aug 2020, Published online: 24 Aug 2020

References

  • Lucendo AJ, Molina-Infante J, Arias A, et al., Guidelines on eosinophilic esophagitis: evidence-based statements and recommendations for diagnosis and management in children and adults. United Eur Gastroenterol J. 2017;5(3): 335–358.
  • Straumann A, Spichtin HP, Bernoulli R, et al. Idiopathic eosinophilic esophagitis: a frequently overlooked disease with typical clinical aspects and discrete endoscopic findings. Schweiz Med Wochenschr. 1994;124(33):1419–1429.
  • Attwood SE, Smyrk TC, Demeester TR, et al. Esophageal eosinophilia with dysphagia. A distinct clinicopathologic syndrome. Dig Dis Sci. 1993;38(1):109–116.
  • Arias A, Pérez-Martínez I, Tenías JM, et al. Systematic review with meta-analysis: the incidence and prevalence of eosinophilic oesophagitis in children and adults in population-based studies. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2016;43(1):3–15.
  • Navarro P, Arias Á, Arias-González L, et al., Systematic review with meta-analysis: the growing incidence and prevalence of eosinophilic oesophagitis in children and adults in population-based studies. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2019;49(9): 1116–1125.
  • Hommeida S, Grothe RM, Hafed Y, et al. Assessing the incidence trend and characteristics of eosinophilic esophagitis in children in Olmsted County, Minnesota. Dis Esophagus. 2018;31(12):1–8.
  • Robson J, O’Gorman M, McClain A, et al., Incidence and prevalence of pediatric eosinophilic esophagitis in Utah based on a 5-year population-based study. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2019;17(1): 107–114.
  • Arias Á, Lucendo AJ. Incidence and prevalence of eosinophilic oesophagitis increase continiously in adults and children in Central Spain: a 12-year population-based study. Dig Liver Dis. 2019;51(1):55–62.
  • Dellon ES. Epidemiology of eosinophilic esophagitis. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 2014;43(2):201–218.
  • Prasad GA, Talley NJ, Romero Y, et al. Prevalence and predictive factors of eosinophilic esophagitis in patients presenting with dysphagia: a prospective study. Am J Gastroenterol. 2007;102(12):2627–2632.
  • La Orden Izquierdo E, Gutiérrez Junquera C, Mahillo-Fernández I, et al. Increasing incidence of pediatric eosinophilic esophagitis in the southwest of Madrid, Spain. J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol. 2019;29(1):24–29.
  • Molina-Infante J, Gonzalez-Cordero PL, Ferreira-Nossa HC, et al. Rising incidence and prevalence of adult eosinophilic esophagitis in midwestern Spain (2007-2016). United Eur Gastroenterol J. 2018;6(1):29–37.
  • Ally MR, Maydonovitch CL, Betteridge JD, et al. Prevalence of eosinophilic esophagitis in a United States military health-care population. Dis Esophagus. 2015;28(6):505–511.
  • Stewart MJ, Shaffer E, Urbanski SJ, et al. The association between celiac disease and eosinophilic esophagitis in children and adults. BMC Gastroenterol. 2013;13(1):96.
  • Dellon ES, Jensen ET, Martin CF, et al. Prevalence of eosinophilic esophagitis in the United States. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2014;12(4):589–596.
  • Noel RJ, Putnam PE, Rothenberg ME. Eosinophilic esophagitis. N Engl J Med. 2004;351(9):940–941.
  • Arias A, Lucendo AJ. Prevalence of eosinophilic oesophagitis in adult patients in a central region of Spain. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2013;25(2):208–212.
  • Hruz P, Straumann A, Bussmann C, et al. Escalating incidence of eosinophilic esophagitis: a 20-year prospective, population-based study in Olten County, Switzerland. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2011;128(6):1349–1350.
  • Prakash R, Maradey C, Fass R. Eosinophilic esophagitis is much less common than previously thought: a large nationwide database study. Am J Gastroenterol. 2013;108(Suppl. 1):S33.
  • Prasad GA, Alexander JA, Schleck CD, et al. Epidemiology of eosinophilic esophagitis over three decades in Olmsted County, Minnesota. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2009;7(10):1055–1061.
  • Kim S, Kim S, Sheikh J. Prevalence of eosinophilic esophagitis in a population-based cohort from Southern California. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2015;3(6):978–979.
  • Maradey-Romero C, Prakash R, Lewis S, et al. The 2011-2014 prevalence of eosinophilic oesophagitis in the elderly amongst 10 million patients in the United States. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2015;41(10):1016–1022.
  • Gokhale M, Bell C, Law M. Implications on patient identification using claims data. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2017;26(Suppl 2):67.
  • Straumann A, Simon H-U. Eosinophilic esophagitis: escalating epidemiology? J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2005;115(2):418–419.
  • Lucendo AJ. Meta-analysis-based guidance for dietary management in eosinophilic esophagitis. Curr Gastroenterol Rep. 2015;17(10):464.
  • Madison JM, Bhardwaj V, Braskett M. Strategy for food reintroduction following empiric elimination and elemental dietary therapy in the treatment of eosinophilic gastrointestinal disorders. Curr Gastroenterol Rep. 2020;22(5):25.
  • Syed AAN, Andrews CN, Shaffer E, et al. The rising incidence of eosinophilic oesophagitis is associated with increasing biopsy rates: a population-based study. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2012;36(10):950–958.
  • Vanderheyden AD, Petras RE, DeYoung BR, et al. Emerging eosinophilic (allergic) esophagitis: increased incidence or increased recognition? Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2007;131(5):777–779.
  • Patel NP, Bussler JF, Geisinger KR, et al. Are pathologists accurately diagnosing eosinophilic esophagitis in children? A 9-year single academic institutional experience with interobserver observations. Int J Surg Pathol. 2011;19(3):290–296.
  • Kanakala V, Lamb CA, Haigh C, et al. The diagnosis of primary eosinophilic oesophagitis in adults: missed or misinterpreted? Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2010;22(7):848–855.
  • Dellon ES, Erichsen R, Baron JA, et al. The increasing incidence and prevalence of eosinophilic oesophagitis outpaces changes in endoscopic and biopsy practice: national population-based estimates from Denmark. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2015;41(7):662–670.
  • Kidambi T, Toto E, Ho N, et al. Temporal trends in the relative prevalence of dysphagia etiologies from 1999-2009. World J Gastroenterol. 2012;18(32):4335–4341.
  • Dellon ES, Liacouras CA, Molina-Infante J, et al. Updated international consensus diagnostic criteria for eosinophilic esophagitis: proceedings of the AGREE conference. Gastroenterology. 2018;155(4):1022–1033.
  • Molina-Infante J, Rivas MD, Hernandez-Alonso M, et al. Proton pump inhibitor-responsive oesophageal eosinophilia correlates with downregulation of eotaxin-3 and Th2 cytokines overexpression. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2014;40(8):955–965.
  • Wen T, Dellon ES, Moawad FJ, et al. Transcriptome analysis of proton pump inhibitor-responsive esophageal eosinophilia reveals proton pump inhibitor-reversible allergic inflammation. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2015;135(1):187–197.
  • Molina-Infante J, Schoepfer AM, Lucendo AJ, et al. Eosinophilic esophagitis: what can we learn from Crohn’s disease? United Eur Gastroenterol J. 2017;5(6):762–772.
  • Dellon ES, Gonsalves N, Hirano I, et al. ACG clinical guideline: evidenced based approach to the diagnosis and management of esophageal eosinophilia and eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE). Am J Gastroenterol. 2013;108(5):679–692.
  • Furuta GT, Liacouras CA, Collins MH, et al. Eosinophilic esophagitis in children and adults: a systematic review and consensus recommendations for diagnosis and treatment. Gastroenterology. 2007;133(4):1342–1363.
  • Liacouras CA, Furuta GT, Hirano I, et al. Eosinophilic esophagitis: updated consensus recommendations for children and adults. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2011;128(1):3–20.
  • Papadopoulou A, Koletzko S, Heuschkel R, et al. Management guidelines of eosinophilic esophagitis in childhood. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2014;58(1):107–118.
  • Lucendo AJ, Arias A, Molina-Infante J, et al. Diagnostic and therapeutic management of eosinophilic oesophagitis in children and adults: results from a Spanish registry of clinical practice. Dig Liver Dis. 2013;45(7):562–568.
  • Schoepfer AM, Safroneeva E, Bussmann C, et al. Delay in diagnosis of eosinophilic esophagitis increases risk for stricture formation in a time-dependent manner. Gastroenterology. 2013;145(6):1230–1236.
  • Reed CC, Koutlas NT, Robey BS, et al. Prolonged time to diagnosis of eosinophilic esophagitis despite increasing knowledge of the disease. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2018;16(10):1667–1669.
  • Minshall EM, Leung DY, Martin RJ, et al. Eosinophil-associated TGF-beta1 mRNA expression and airways fibrosis in bronchial asthma. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 1997;17(3):326–333.
  • Alizadeh-Sani Z, Vakili-Zarch A, Kiavar M, et al. Eosinophilic endomyocardial fibrosis and strongyloides stercoralis: a case report. Res Cardiovasc Med. 2013;2(2):104–105.
  • Bramuzzo M, Martelossi S, Villanacci V, et al. Ileoileal intussusceptions caused by eosinophilic enteropathy. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2016;62(6):e60.
  • Colizzo JM, Clayton SB, Richter JE. Intrabolus pressure on high-resolution manometry distinguishes fibrostenotic and inflammatory phenotypes of eosinophilic esophagitis. Dis Esophagus. 2016;29(6):551–557.
  • Dellon ES, Kim HP, Sperry SLW, et al. A phenotypic analysis shows that eosinophilic esophagitis is a progressive fibrostenotic disease. Gastrointest Endosc. 2014;79(4):577–585.
  • Lipka S, Kumar A, Richter JE. Impact of diagnostic delay and other risk factors on eosinophilic esophagitis phenotype and esophageal diameter. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2016;50(2):134–140.
  • Jensen ET, Hoffman K, Shaheen NJ, et al. Esophageal eosinophilia is increased in rural areas with low population density: results from a national pathology database. Am J Gastroenterol. 2014;109(5):668–675.
  • Hurrell JM, Genta RM, Dellon ES. Prevalence of esophageal eosinophilia varies by climate zone in the United States. Am J Gastroenterol. 2012;107(5):698–706.
  • Sherrill JD, Gao P-S, Stucke EM, et al. Variants of thymic stromal lymphopoietin and its receptor associate with eosinophilic esophagitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2010;126(1):160–165.
  • Allen-Brady K, Firszt R, Fang JC, et al. Population-based familial aggregation of eosinophilic esophagitis suggests a genetic contribution. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2017;140(4):1138–1143.
  • Mansoor E, Cooper GS. The 2010-2015 prevalence of eosinophilic esophagitis in the USA: a population-based study. Dig Dis Sci. 2016;61(10):2928–2934.
  • Yu C, Sterling D, Albayati I, et al. The prevalence of biopsy-proven eosinophilic esophagitis in hispanics undergoing endoscopy is infrequent compared to caucasians: a cross-sectional study. Dig Dis Sci. 2017;62(12):3511–3516.
  • Tan LN, Srivastava S, Teh M, et al. Eosinophilic oesophagitis in children: an uncommon occurrence in a predominantly Chinese population in Singapore. Singapore Med J. 2017;58(4):218–222.
  • Simon D, Marti H, Heer P, et al. Eosinophilic esophagitis is frequently associated with IgE-mediated allergic airway diseases. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2005;115(5):1090–1092.
  • Pelz BJ, Wechsler JB, Amsden K, et al. IgE-associated food allergy alters the presentation of paediatric eosinophilic esophagitis. Clin Exp Allergy. 2016;46(11):1431–1440.
  • González-Cervera J, Arias Á, Redondo-González O, et al. Association between atopic manifestations and eosinophilic esophagitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2017;118(5):582–590.
  • Hill DA, Grundmeier RW, Ramos M, et al., Eosinophilic esophagitis is a late manifestation of the allergic march. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2018;6(5): 1528–1533.
  • Kelly KJ, Lazenby AJ, Rowe PC, et al. Eosinophilic esophagitis attributed to gastroesophageal reflux: improvement with an amino acid-based formula. Gastroenterology. 1995;109(5):1503–1512.
  • Gómez Torrijos E, Sánchez Miranda P, Donado Palencia P, et al. Eosinophilic esophagitis: demographic, clinical, endoscopic, histologic, and atopic characteristics of children and teenagers in a region in central Spain. J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol. 2017;27(2):104–110.
  • He YT, Christos PJ, Reisacher WR. Airborne and food sensitization patterns in children and adults with eosinophilic esophagitis. Int Forum Allergy Rhinol. 2018;8(5):571–576.
  • Moawad FJ, Veerappan GR, Lake JM, et al. Correlation between eosinophilic oesophagitis and aeroallergens. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2010;31(4):509–515.
  • Fogg MI, Spergel JM. Management of food allergies. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2003;4(7):1025–1037.
  • Wolf WA, Jerath MR, Dellon ES. De-novo onset of eosinophilic esophagitis after large volume allergen exposures. J Gastrointest Liver Dis. 2013;22(2):205–208.
  • Miehlke S, Alpan O, Schröder S, et al. Induction of eosinophilic esophagitis by sublingual pollen immunotherapy. Case Rep Gastroenterol. 2013;7(3):268–363.
  • van Rhijn BD, van Ree R, Versteeg SA, et al. Birch pollen sensitization with cross-reactivity to food allergens predominates in adults with eosinophilic esophagitis. Allergy. 2013;68(11):1475–1481.
  • Mishra A, Hogan SP, Brandt EB, et al. An etiological role for aeroallergens and eosinophils in experimental esophagitis. J Clin Invest. 2001;107(1):83–90.
  • Mishra A, Wang M, Pemmaraju VR, et al. Esophageal remodeling develops as a consequence of tissue specific IL-5-induced eosinophilia. Gastroenterology. 2008;134(1):204–214.
  • Almansa C, Krishna M, Buchner AM, et al. Seasonal distribution in newly diagnosed cases of eosinophilic esophagitis in adults. Am J Gastroenterol. 2009;104(4):828–833.
  • Suryawala K, Palle S. Altaf MA. Epidemiology, clinical presentation, and seasonal variation in the diagnosis of children with eosinophilic esophagitis in Oklahoma. South Med J. 2020;113(1):37–41.
  • Wang FY, Gupta SK, Fitzgerald JF. Is there a seasonal variation in the incidence or intensity of allergic eosinophilic esophagitis in newly diagnosed children? J Clin Gastroenterol. 2007;41(5):451–453.
  • Larsson H, Bergquist H, Bove M. The incidence of esophageal bolus impaction: is there a seasonal variation? Otolaryngol Neck Surg. 2011;144(2):186–190.
  • Simon D, Cianferoni A, Spergel JM, et al., Eosinophilic esophagitis is characterized by a non-IgE-mediated food hypersensitivity. Allergy. 2016;71(5): 611–620.
  • Lucendo AJ, Arias A, Redondo-Gonzalez O, et al., Seasonal distribution of initial diagnosis and clinical recrudescence of eosinophilic esophagitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Allergy. 2015;70(12): 1640–1650.
  • Molina-Infante J, Arias A, Barrio J, et al. Four-food group elimination diet for adult eosinophilic esophagitis: a prospective multicenter study. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2014;134(5):1093–1099.
  • Kagalwalla AF, Wechsler JB, Amsden K, et al. Efficacy of a 4-food elimination diet for children with eosinophilic esophagitis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2017;15(11):1698–1707.
  • Molina-Infante J, Arias Á, Alcedo J, et al. Step-up empiric elimination diet for pediatric and adult eosinophilic esophagitis: the 2-4-6 study. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2018;141(4):1365–1372.
  • Ekre M, Tytor J, Bove M, et al. Retrospective chart review: seasonal variation in incidence of bolus impaction is maintained and statistically significant in subgroups with atopy and eosinophilic esophagitis. Dis Esophagus. 2020;33(6). DOI:10.1093/dote/doaa013
  • Lucendo AJ, Molina-Infante J, Arias A, et al. Seasonal variation in the diagnosis of eosinophilic esophagitis: there and back again. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2017;64(1):e25.
  • Hooi JKY, Lai WY, Ng WK, et al. Global prevalence of helicobacter pylori infection: systematic review and meta-analysis. Gastroenterology. 2017;153(2):420–429.
  • Ronkainen J, Talley NJ, Aro P, et al. Prevalence of oesophageal eosinophils and eosinophilic oesophagitis in adults: the population-based Kalixanda study. Gut. 2007;56(5):615–620.
  • Dellon ES, Peery AF, Shaheen NJ, et al. Inverse association of esophageal eosinophilia with Helicobacter pylori based on analysis of a US pathology database. Gastroenterology. 2011;141(5):1586–1592.
  • Elitsur Y, Alrazzak BA, Preston D, et al. Does Helicobacter pylori protect against eosinophilic esophagitis in children? Helicobacter. 2014;19(5):367–371.
  • Von Arnim U, Wex T, Link A, et al. Helicobacter pylori infection is associated with a reduced risk of developing eosinophilic oesophagitis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2016;43(7):825–830.
  • Sonnenberg A, Dellon ES, Turner KO, et al. The influence of Helicobacter pylori on the ethnic distribution of esophageal eosinophilia. Helicobacter. 2017;22(3):3.
  • Nguyen T, Ramsey D, Graham D, et al. The prevalence of Helicobacter pylori remains high in African American and Hispanic veterans. Helicobacter. 2015;20(4):305–315.
  • Agréus L, Hellström PM, Talley NJ, et al. Towards a healthy stomach? Helicobacter pylori prevalence has dramatically decreased over 23 years in adults in a Swedish community. United Eur Gastroenterol J. 2016;4(5):686–696.
  • Arnold IC, Dehzad N, Reuter S, et al. Helicobacter pylori infection prevents allergic asthma in mouse models through the induction of regulatory T cells. J Clin Invest. 2011;121(8):3088–3093.
  • Oertli M, Müller A. Helicobacter pylori targets dendritic cells to induce immune tolerance, promote persistence and confer protection against allergic asthma. Gut Microbes. 2012;3(6):566–571.
  • Lankarani KB, Honarvar B, Athari SS. The mechanisms underlying helicobacter pylori-mediated protection against allergic asthma. Tanaffos. 2017;16(4):251–259.
  • Molina-Infante J, Gutierrez-Junquera C, Savarino E, et al. Helicobacter pylori infection does not protect against eosinophilic esophagitis: results from a large multicenter case-control study. Am J Gastroenterol. 2018;113(7):972–979.
  • Shah SC, Tepler A, Peek RM, et al. Association between Helicobacter pylori exposure and decreased odds of eosinophilic esophagitis-a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2019;17(11):2185–2198.
  • Collins MH, Blanchard C, Abonia JP, et al. Clinical, pathologic, and molecular characterization of familial eosinophilic esophagitis compared with sporadic cases. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2008;6(6):621–629.
  • Alexander ES, Martin LJ, Collins MH, et al., Twin and family studies reveal strong environmental and weaker genetic cues explaining heritability of eosinophilic esophagitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2014;134(5): 1084–1092.
  • Kottyan LC, Parameswaran S, Weirauch MT, et al. The genetic etiology of eosinophilic esophagitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2020;145(1):9–15.
  • Sherrill JD, Kc K, Wang X, et al. Whole-exome sequencing uncovers oxidoreductases DHTKD1 and OGDHL as linkers between mitochondrial dysfunction and eosinophilic esophagitis. JCI Insight. 2018 ;3(8):e99922.
  • Jensen ET, Kappelman MD, Kim HP, et al. Early life exposures as risk factors for pediatric eosinophilic esophagitis. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2013;57(1):67–71.
  • Jensen ET, Kuhl JT, Martin LJ, et al., Early-life environmental exposures interact with genetic susceptibility variants in pediatric patients with eosinophilic esophagitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2018;141(2): 632–637.
  • Jensen ET, Kuhl JT, Martin LJ, et al., Prenatal, intrapartum, and postnatal factors are associated with pediatric eosinophilic esophagitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2018;141(1): 214–222.
  • Slae M, Persad R, Leung AJ-T, et al. Role of environmental factors in the development of pediatric eosinophilic esophagitis. Dig Dis Sci. 2015;60(11):3364–3372.
  • Radano MC, Yuan Q, Katz A, et al. Cesarean section and antibiotic use found to be associated with eosinophilic esophagitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2014;2(4):475–477.
  • Castro-Rodriguez JA, Forno E, Rodriguez-Martinez CE, et al. Risk and protective factors for childhood asthma: what is the evidence? J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2016;4(6):1111–1122.
  • Kashyap PC, Johnson S, Geno DM, et al. A decreased abundance of clostridia characterizes the gut microbiota in eosinophilic esophagitis. Physiol Rep. 2019;7(20):e14261.
  • Benitez AJ, Hoffmann C, Muir AB, et al. Inflammation-associated microbiota in pediatric eosinophilic esophagitis. Microbiome. 2015;3(1):23.
  • Harris JK, Fang R, Wagner BD, et al. Esophageal microbiome in eosinophilic esophagitis. PloS One. 2015;10(5):e0128346.
  • Arias A, Vicario M, Bernardo D, et al. Toll-like receptors-mediated pathways activate inflammatory responses in the esophageal mucosa of adult eosinophilic esophagitis. Clin Transl Gastroenterol. 2018;9(4):147.
  • Casas L, Tischer C, Tiesler C, et al. Association of gas cooking with children’s respiratory health: results from GINIplus and LISAplus birth cohort studies: gas cooking and children’s respiratory health. Indoor Air. 2012;22(6):476–482.
  • Ostro BD, Lipsett MJ, Mann JK, et al. Indoor air pollution and asthma. Results from a panel study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994;149(6):1400–1406.
  • Belanger K, Triche EW. Indoor combustion and asthma. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2008;28(3):507–519.
  • Norbäck D, Lu C, Zhang Y, et al. Sources of indoor particulate matter (PM) and outdoor air pollution in China in relation to asthma, wheeze, rhinitis and eczema among pre-school children: synergistic effects between antibiotics use and PM10 and second hand smoke. Environ Int. 2019;125:252–260.
  • Dodson RE, Udesky JO, Colton MD, et al. Chemical exposures in recently renovated low-income housing: influence of building materials and occupant activities. Environ Int. 2017;109:114–127.
  • Volchek K, Thouin G, Kuang W, et al. The release of lindane from contaminated building materials. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2014;21(20):11844–11855.
  • Corder SR, Tappata M, Shaheen O, et al. Relationship between housing components and development of eosinophilic esophagitis. Dig Dis Sci. 2020. DOI:10.1007/s10620-020-06063-2
  • Lucendo AJ. Disease associations in eosinophilic oesophagitis and oesophageal eosinophilia. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol. 2015;29(5):759–769.
  • Quaglietta L, Coccorullo P, Miele E, et al. Eosinophilic oesophagitis and coeliac disease: is there an association? Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2007;26(3):487–493.
  • Verzegnassi F, Bua J, De Angelis P, et al. Eosinophilic oesophagitis and coeliac disease: is it just a casual association? Gut. 2007;56(7):1029–1030.
  • Thompson JS, Lebwohl B, Reilly NR, et al. Increased incidence of eosinophilic esophagitis in children and adults with celiac disease. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2012;46(1):e6–11.
  • Dharmaraj R, Hagglund K, Lyons H. Eosinophilic esophagitis associated with celiac disease in children. BMC Res Notes. 2015;8(1):263.
  • Ludvigsson JF, Aro P, Walker MM, et al., Celiac disease, eosinophilic esophagitis and gastroesophageal reflux disease, an adult population-based study. Scand J Gastroenterol. 2013;48(7): 808–814.
  • Jensen ET, Eluri S, Lebwohl B, et al. Increased risk of esophageal eosinophilia and eosinophilic esophagitis in patients with active celiac disease on Biopsy. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2015;13(8):1426–1431.
  • Lucendo AJ, Arias Á, Tenias JM. Systematic review: the association between eosinophilic oesophagitis and coeliac disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2014;40(5):422–434.
  • Hommeida S, Alsawas M, Murad MH, et al. The Association between celiac disease and eosinophilic esophagitis: mayo experience and meta-analysis of the literature. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2017;65(1):58–63.
  • Lucendo AJ, Arias A, Perez-Martinez I, et al. Adult patients with eosinophilic esophagitis do not show an increased frequency of the HLA-DQ2/DQ8 genotypes predisposing to celiac disease. Dig Dis Sci. 2011;56(4):1107–1111.
  • Walsh RE, Gaginella TS. The eosinophil in inflammatory bowel disease. Scand J Gastroenterol. 1991;26(12):1217–1224.
  • Bischoff SC, Mayer J, Nguyen Q-T, et al. Immunohistological assessment of intestinal eosinophil activation in patients with eosinophilic gastroenteritis and inflammatory bowel disease. Am J Gastroenterol. 1999;94(12):3521–3529.
  • Mulder DJ, Hookey LC, Hurlbut DJ, et al. Impact of Crohn disease on eosinophilic esophagitis: evidence for an altered TH1-TH2 immune response. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2011;53(2):213–215.
  • Suttor VP, Chow C, Turner I. Eosinophilic esophagitis with Crohn’s disease: a new association or overlapping immune-mediated enteropathy? Am J Gastroenterol. 2009;104(3):794–795.
  • Fan YC, Steele D, Kochar B, et al. Increased prevalence of esophageal eosinophilia in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Inflamm Intest Dis. 2018;3(4):180–186.
  • Limketkai BN, Shah SC, Hirano I, et al. Epidemiology and implications of concurrent diagnosis of eosinophilic oesophagitis and IBD based on a prospective population-based analysis. Gut. 2019;68(12):2152–2160.
  • Sonnenberg A, Turner KO, Genta RM. Comorbid occurrence of eosinophilic esophagitis and inflammatory bowel disease. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2020. DOI:10.1016/j.cgh.2020.02.015
  • Burisch J, Pedersen N, Čuković-Čavka S, et al. East–West gradient in the incidence of inflammatory bowel disease in Europe: the ECCO-EpiCom inception cohort. Gut. 2014;63(4):588–597.
  • Lucendo AJ, Hervias D, Roncero O, et al. Epidemiology and temporal trends (2000-2012) of inflammatory bowel disease in adult patients in a central region of Spain. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2014;26(12):1399–1407.
  • Burisch J, Munkholm P. The epidemiology of inflammatory bowel disease. Scand J Gastroenterol. 2015;50(8):942–951.
  • Mintz MJ, Ananthakrishnan AN. Phenotype and natural history of inflammatory bowel disease in patients with concomitant eosinophilic esophagitis. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2020. DOI:10.1093/ibd/izaa094
  • Abonia JP, Wen T, Stucke EM, et al. High prevalence of eosinophilic esophagitis in patients with inherited connective tissue disorders. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2013;132(2):378–386.
  • Capucilli P, Cianferoni A, Grundmeier RW, et al. Comparison of comorbid diagnoses in children with and without eosinophilic esophagitis in a large population. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2018;121(6):711–716.
  • Rothenberg ME. Molecular, genetic, and cellular bases for treating eosinophilic esophagitis. Gastroenterology. 2015;148(6):1143–1157.
  • Lardenois E, Michaud L, Schneider A, et al. Prevalence of eosinophilic esophagitis in adolescents with esophageal atresia. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2019;69(1):52–56.
  • Gorter RR, Heij HA, van der Voorn JP, et al. Eosinophilic esophagitis after esophageal atresia: is there an association? Case presentation and literature review. J Pediatr Surg. 2012;47(6):e9–13.
  • Oliveira C, Zamakhshary M, Marcon P, et al. Eosinophilic esophagitis and intermediate esophagitis after tracheoesophageal fistula repair: a case series. J Pediatr Surg. 2008;43(5):810–814.
  • Sfeir R, Bonnard A, Khen-Dunlop N, et al. Esophageal atresia: data from a national cohort. J Pediatr Surg. agosto de. 2013;48(8):1664–1669.
  • Krishnan U. Eosinophilic esophagitis in esophageal atresia. Front Pediatr. 2019;7:497.
  • Spechler SJ, Genta RM, Souza RF. Thoughts on the complex relationship between gastroesophageal reflux disease and eosinophilic esophagitis. Am J Gastroenterol. 2007;102(6):1301–1306.
  • Deurloo JA, Klinkenberg EC, Ekkelkamp S, et al. Adults with corrected oesophageal atresia: is oesophageal function associated with complaints and/or quality of life? Pediatr Surg Int. 2008;24(5):537–541.
  • Stankiewicz P, Sen P, Bhatt SS, et al. Genomic and genic deletions of the FOX gene cluster on 16q24.1 and inactivating mutations of FOXF1 cause alveolar capillary dysplasia and other malformations. Am J Hum Genet. 2009;84(6):780–791.
  • Wen T, Aronow BJ, Rochman Y, et al. Single-cell RNA sequencing identifies inflammatory tissue T cells in eosinophilic esophagitis. J Clin Invest. 2019;129(5):2014–2028.
  • Costa RH, Kalinichenko VV, Lim L. Transcription factors in mouse lung development and function. Am J Physiol-Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2001;280(5):L823–838.
  • Arias Á, Lucendo AJ. Molecular basis and cellular mechanisms of eosinophilic esophagitis for the clinical practice. Expert Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2019;13(2):99–117.
  • Lucendo AJ. Cellular and molecular immunological mechanisms in eosinophilic esophagitis: an updated overview of their clinical implications. Expert Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2014;8(6):669–685.
  • Blanchard C, Wang N, Stringer KF, et al. Eotaxin-3 and a uniquely conserved gene-expression profile in eosinophilic esophagitis. J Clin Invest. 2006;116(2):536–547.
  • Blanchard C, Mingler MK, Vicario M, et al. IL-13 involvement in eosinophilic esophagitis: transcriptome analysis and reversibility with glucocorticoids. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2007;120(6):1292–1300.
  • Mukkada V, Falk GW, Eichinger CS, et al. Health-related quality of life and costs associated with eosinophilic esophagitis: a systematic review. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2018;16(4):495–503.
  • Friedlander JA, DeBoer EM, Soden JS, et al. Unsedated transnasal esophagoscopy for monitoring therapy in pediatric eosinophilic esophagitis. Gastrointest Endosc. 2016;83(2):299–306.
  • Kavitt RT, Penson DF, Vaezi MF. Eosinophilic esophagitis: dilate or medicate? A cost analysis model of the choice of initial therapy. Dis Esophagus. 2014;27(5):418–423.
  • Dellon ES. Cost-effective care in eosinophilic esophagitis. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2019;123(2):166–172.
  • Anderson J, Moonie S, Hogan MB, et al. Cost of chronic inflammatory disease: the impact of eosinophilic esophagitis in Nevada. J Dig Dis. 2020;21(1):12–19.
  • Jensen ET, Kappelman MD, Martin CF, et al., Health-care utilization, costs, and the burden of disease related to eosinophilic esophagitis in the United States. Am J Gastroenterol. 2015;110(5): 626–632.
  • Peery AF, Dellon ES, Lund J, et al. Burden of gastrointestinal disease in the United States: 2012 update. Gastroenterology. 2012;143(5):1179–1187.
  • Arias-González L, Rey-Iborra E, Ruiz-Ponce M, et al. Esophageal perforation in eosinophilic esophagitis: A systematic review on clinical presentation, management and outcomes. Dig Liver Dis. 2020;52(3):245–252.
  • Zhan T, Ali A, Choi JG, et al. Model to determine the optimal dietary elimination strategy for treatment of eosinophilic esophagitis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2018;16(11):1730–1737.
  • Cotton CC, Erim D, Eluri S, et al. Cost utility analysis of topical steroids compared with dietary elimination for treatment of eosinophilic esophagitis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2017;15(6):841–849.
  • Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops, 2014. ISAAA; 2014.
  • Fernánez-Cornejo J, Wechler S, Livingston M, et al. Adoption of genetically engineered crops in the U.S. 1996-2015. USDA ERS; Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. 2015.
  • Lucendo AJ, Molina-Infante J. Treatment of eosinophilic esophagitis with diets. Minerva Gastroenterol Dietol. 2020;66(2):124–135.
  • Lucendo AJ, Molina-Infante J. Dietary therapy for eosinophilic esophagitis: chances and limitations in the clinical practice. Expert Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2020;1–12. DOI:10.1080/17474124.2020.1791084
  • Moawad FJ, Molina-Infante J, Lucendo AJ, et al. Systematic review with meta-analysis: endoscopic dilation is highly effective and safe in children and adults with eosinophilic oesophagitis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2017;46(2):96–105.
  • Lucendo AJ, Arias A, Molina-Infante J, et al. The role of endoscopy in eosinophilic esophagitis: from diagnosis to therapy. Expert Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2017;11(12):1135–1149.
  • Murali AR, Gupta A, Attar BM, et al. Topical steroids in eosinophilic esophagitis: systematic review and meta-analysis of placebo-controlled randomized clinical trials. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2016;31(6):1111–1119.
  • Lucendo AJ, Arias A, Molina-Infante J. Efficacy of proton pump inhibitor drugs for inducing clinical and histologic remission in patients with symptomatic esophageal eosinophilia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2016;14(1):13–22.
  • Straumann A, Hoesli S, Bussmann C, et al. Anti-eosinophil activity and clinical efficacy of the CRTH2 antagonist OC000459 in eosinophilic esophagitis. Allergy. 2013;68(3):375–385.
  • Lucendo AJ, De Rezende LC, Jimenez-Contreras S, et al. Montelukast was inefficient in maintaining steroid-induced remission in adult eosinophilic esophagitis. Dig Dis Sci. 2011;56(12):3551–3558.
  • Lucendo AJ. Pharmacological treatments for eosinophilic esophagitis: current options and emerging therapies. Expert Rev Clin Immunol. 2020;16(1):63–77.
  • Lucendo A, López-Sánchez P. Targeted therapies for eosinophilic gastrointestinal disorders. BioDrugs. 2020;34(4):477–493.
  • Hirano I, Chan ES, Rank MA, et al. AGA Institute and the joint task force on allergy-immunology practice parameters clinical guidelines for the management of eosinophilic esophagitis. Gastroenterology. 2020;158(6):1776–1786.
  • Eluri S, Iglesia EGA, Massaro M, et al. Practice patterns and adherence to clinical guidelines for diagnosis and management of eosinophilic esophagitis among gastroenterologists. Dis Esophagus. 2020;33(7). DOI:10.1093/dote/doaa025
  • Hannan N, Steel A, McMillan SS, et al. Health service use and treatment choices for pediatric eosinophilic esophagitis: findings from a cross-sectional survey of Australian carers. Front Pediatr. 2020;8:147.
  • Green DJ, Cotton CC, Dellon ES. The role of environmental exposures in the etiology of eosinophilic esophagitis: a systematic review. Mayo Clin Proc. 2015;90(10):1400–1410.
  • Moawad FJ, Dellon ES, Achem SR, et al. Effects of race and sex on features of eosinophilic esophagitis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2016;14(1):23–30.
  • Laserna-Mendieta EJ, Casabona S, Savarino E, et al. Efficacy of therapy for eosinophilic esophagitis in real-world practice. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2020. DOI:10.1016/j.cgh.2020.01.024.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.