Respiratory syncytial virus infection: why does disease severity vary among individuals?

References

• Shi T, McAllister DA, O’Brien KL, et al. Global, regional, and national disease burden estimates of acute lower respiratory infections due to respiratory syncytial virus in young children in 2015: a systematic review and modelling study. Lancet. 2017;390(10098):946 58.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hall CB. Respiratory syncytial virus and parainfluenza virus. N Engl J Med. 2001;344(25):1917–1928.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leader S, Kohlhase K. Respiratory syncytial virus-coded pediatric hospitalizations, 1997 to 1999. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2002;21(7):629–632.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alvarez AE, Marson FA, Bertuzzo CS, et al. Epidemiological and genetic characteristics associated with the severity of acute viral bronchiolitis by respiratory syncytial virus. Jornal de Pediatria (Versão em Português). 2013;89(6):531–543.
   Google Scholar
• Openshaw PJ, Tregoning JS. Immune responses and disease enhancement during respiratory syncytial virus infection. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2005;18(3):541–555.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salimi V, Ramezani A, Mirzaei H, et al. Evaluation of the expression level of 12/15 lipoxygenase and the related inflammatory factors (CCL5, CCL3) in respiratory syncytial virus infection in mice model. Microb Pathog. 2017;109:209–213.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tahamtan A, Inchley CS, Marzban M, et al. The role of microRNAs in respiratory viral infection: friend or foe? Rev Med Virol. 2016;26(6):389–407.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salimi V, Mirzaei H, Ramezani A, et al. Blocking of opioid receptors in experimental formaline-inactivated respiratory syncytial virus (FI-RSV) immunopathogenesis: from beneficial to harmful impacts. Med Microbiol Immunol. 2018;207(2):105–115.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tahamtan A, Tavakoli-Yaraki M, Shadab A, et al. The role of cannabinoid receptor 1 in the immunopathology of respiratory syncytial virus. Viral Immunol. 2018;31:292–298.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tahamtan A, Teymoori-Rad M, Nakstad B, et al. Anti-inflammatory MicroRNAs and their potential for inflammatory diseases treatment. Front Immunol. 2018;9:1377.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vandini S, Bottau P, Faldella G, et al. Immunological, viral, environmental, and individual factors modulating lung immune response to respiratory syncytial virus. BioMed Res Int. 2015;2015:1–7.
   Google Scholar
• Xin T, Huang W, De Riek J, et al. Genetic diversity, population structure, and traditional culture of Camellia reticulata. Ecol Evol. 2017;7(21):8915–8926.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lambert L, Sagfors AM, Openshaw PJ, et al. Immunity to RSV in early-life. Front Immunol. 2014;5:466.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Openshaw PJ, Chiu C, Culley FJ, et al. Protective and harmful immunity to RSV infection. Annu Rev Immunol. 2017;35:501–532.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gouyon J-B, Roze J-C, Guillermet-Fromentin C, et al. Hospitalizations for respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis in preterm infants at <33 weeks gestation without bronchopulmonary dysplasia: the CASTOR study. Epidemiol Infect. 2013;141(4):816–826.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aujard Y, Fauroux B. Risk factors for severe respiratory syncytial virus infection in infants. Respir Med. 2002;96:S9–S14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olin A, Henckel E, Chen Y, et al. Stereotypic immune system development in newborn children. Cell. 2018;174(5):1277–92. e14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blanken MO, Frederix GW, Nibbelke EE, et al. Cost-effectiveness of rule-based immunoprophylaxis against respiratory syncytial virus infections in preterm infants. Eur J Pediatr. 2018;177(1):133–144.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simoes EA. Environmental and demographic risk factors for respiratory syncytial virus lower respiratory tract disease. J Pediatr. 2003;143(5):118–126.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hervás D, Reina J, Yañez A, et al. Epidemiology of hospitalization for acute bronchiolitis in children: differences between RSV and non-RSV bronchiolitis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2012;31(8):1975–1981.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bradley JP, Bacharier LB, Bonfiglio J, et al. Severity of respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis is affected by cigarette smoke exposure and atopy. Pediatrics. 2005;115(1):e7–e14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen J, Douma W, Ten Hacken N, et al. Physiology of the small airways: a gender difference? Respir Med. 2008;102(9):1264–1271.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boezen HM, Jansen DF, Postma DS. Sex and gender differences in lung development and their clinical significance. Clin Chest Med. 2004;25(2):237–245.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schuurhof A, Bont L, Siezen CL, et al. Interleukin‐9 polymorphism in infants with respiratory syncytial virus infection: an opposite effect in boys and girls. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2010;45(6):608–613.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Astudillo P, Angulo J, Pino K, et al. Correlation between female sex, IL28B genotype, and the clinical severity of bronchiolitis in pediatric patients. Pediatr Res. 2019 Oct 23. DOI: 10.1038/s41390-019-0623-1. [Epub ahead of print]
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Muenchhoff M, Goulder PJ. Sex differences in pediatric infectious diseases. J Infect Dis. 2014;209(suppl_3):S120–S6.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brabin L. Interactions of the female hormonal environment, susceptibility to viral infections, and disease progression. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2002;16(5):211–221.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mostad SB, Kreiss JK, Ryncarz AJ, et al. Cervical shedding of herpes simplex virus in human immunodeficiency virus-infected women: effects of hormonal contraception, pregnancy, and vitamin A deficiency. J Infect Dis. 2000;181(1):58–63.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang CC, Kreiss JK, Reilly M. Risk of HIV infection in oral contraceptive pill users: a meta-analysis. AIDS. 1999;21:51–58.
   Google Scholar
• Martin CR, Ling P-R, Blackburn GL. Review of infant feeding: key features of breast milk and infant formula. Nutrients. 2016;8(5):279.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tromp I, Kiefte-de Jong J, Raat H, et al. Breastfeeding and the risk of respiratory tract infections after infancy: the Generation R Study. PLoS One. 2017;12(2):e0172763.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jang MJ, Kim YJ, Hong S, et al. Positive association of breastfeeding on respiratory syncytial virus infection in hospitalized infants: a multicenter retrospective study. J Korean Pediatr Soc. 2019. DOI: 10.3345/kjp.2019.00402 [Accepted]
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chatzimichael A, Tsalkidis A, Cassimos D, et al. The role of breastfeeding and passive smoking on the development of severe bronchiolitis in infants. Minerva Pediatr. 2007;59(3):199–206.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Størdal K, Lundeby KM, Brantsæter AL, et al. Breastfeeding and infant hospitalisation for infections: large cohort-and sibling analysis. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2017;65(2):225.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lossius AK, Magnus MC, Lunde J, et al. Prospective cohort study of breastfeeding and the risk of childhood asthma. J Pediatr. 2018;195:182–9. e2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dornelles CT, Piva JP, Marostica PJ. Nutritional status, breastfeeding, and evolution of infants with acute viral bronchiolitis. J Health Popul Nutr. 2007;25(3):336.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manzoni P, Figueras-Aloy J, Simões EA, et al. Defining the incidence and associated morbidity and mortality of severe respiratory syncytial virus infection among children with chronic diseases. Infect Dis Ther. 2017;6(3):383–411.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jung JW. Respiratory syncytial virus infection in children with congenital heart disease: global data and interim results of Korean RSV-CHD survey. Korean J Pediatr. 2011;54(5):192.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cooper DS, Jacobs JP, Chai PJ, et al. Pulmonary complications associated with the treatment of patients with congenital cardiac disease: consensus definitions from the multi-societal database committee for pediatric and congenital heart disease. Cardiol Young. 2008 Dec;18(S2):215–221.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wright M, Piedimonte G. Respiratory syncytial virus prevention and therapy: past, present, and future. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2011 Apr;46(4):324–347.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moler FW, Khan AS, Meliones JN, et al. Respiratory syncytial virus morbidity and mortality estimates in congenital heart disease patients: a recent experience. Crit Care Med. 1992;20:1406–1413.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khongphatthanayothin A, Wong PC, Samara Y, et al. Impact of respiratory syncytial virus infection on surgery for congenital heart disease: postoperative course and outcome. Crit Care Med. 1999;27(9):1974–1981.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gooch KL, Vo PG, Khong H. Down syndrome (DS) without congenital heart disease (CHD) and the risk of hospitalization for a lower respiratory tract infection (LRTI) and LRTI due to respiratory syncytial virus. Acta Pediatr. 2011;100:24.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stagliano DR, Nylund CM, Eide MB, et al. Children with Down syndrome are high-risk for severe respiratory syncytial virus disease. J Pediatr. 2015;166:e2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zachariah P, Ruttenber M, Simoes EA. Down syndrome and hospitalizations due to respiratory syncytial virus: a population-based study. J Pediatr. 2012;160:827–831.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pisesky A, Benchimol EI, Wong CA, et al. Incidence of hospitalization for respiratory syncytial virus infection amongst children in Ontario, Canada: a population-based study using validated health administrative data. PLoS One. 2016;11:e0150416.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Espinoza JA, Bohmwald K, Céspedes PF, et al. Impaired learning resulting from respiratory syncytial virus infection. Proc Nat Acad Sci. 2013 May 28;110(22):9112–9117.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turi KN, Romick-Rosendale L, Gebretsadik T, et al. Using urine metabolomics to understand the pathogenesis of infant respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection and its role in childhood wheezing. Metabolomics. 2018 Oct 1;14(10):135.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chandwani S, Borkowsky W, Krasinski K, et al. Respiratory syncytial virus infection in human immunodeficiency virus-infected children. J Pediatr. 1990;117(2):251–254.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beck MA. The role of nutrition in viral disease. J Nutr Biochem. 1996;7(12):683–690.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rivera RC, Marin V, Castillo-Duran C, et al. Nutritional status and clinical evolution of hospitalized Chilean infants with infection by respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). Archivos latinoamericanos de nutricion. 1999 Dec;49(4):326–332.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Okiro EA, Ngama M, Bett A, et al. Factors associated with increased risk of progression to respiratory syncytial virus‐associated pneumonia in young Kenyan children. Trop Med Int Health. 2008;13(7):914–926.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martinez FD. Respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis and the pathogenesis of childhood asthma. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2003;22(2):S76–S82.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kristensen K, Fisker N, Haerskjold A, et al. Caesarean section and hospitalization for respiratory syncytial virus infection: a population-based study. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2015;34(2):145–148.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huurre A, Kalliomäki M, Rautava S, et al. Mode of delivery–effects on gut microbiota and humoral immunity. Neonatology. 2008;93(4):236–240.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prior E, Santhakumaran S, Gale C, et al. Breastfeeding after cesarean delivery: a systematic review and meta-analysis of world literature. Am J Clin Nutr. 2012;95(5):1113–1135.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collins PL, Graham BS. Viral and host factors in human respiratory syncytial virus pathogenesis. J Virol. 2008;82(5):2040–2055.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amanatidou V, Apostolakis S, Spandidos DA. Genetic diversity of the host and severe respiratory syncytial virus-induced lower respiratory tract infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2009;28(2):135–140.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lacoma A, Mateo L, Blanco I, et al. Impact of host genetics and biological response modifiers on respiratory tract infections. Front Immunol. 2019;10:1013.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomsen SF, Stensballe LG, Skytthe A, et al. Increased concordance of severe respiratory syncytial virus infection in identical twins. Pediatrics. 2008;121(3):493–496.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tahamtan A, Askari FS, Bont L, et al. Disease severity in respiratory syncytial virus infection: role of host genetic variation. Rev Med Virol. 2019;29:e2026.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janssen R, Bont L, Siezen CL, et al. Genetic susceptibility to respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis is predominantly associated with innate immune genes. J Infect Dis. 2007;196:826–834.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Puthothu B, Krueger M, Forster J, et al. Interleukin (IL)‐18 polymorphism 133C/G is associated with severe respiratory syncytial virus infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2007;26(12):1094‐1098.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tahamtan A, Samieipoor Y, Nayeri FS, et al. Effects of cannabinoid receptor type 2 in respiratory syncytial virus infection in human subjects and mice. Virulence. 2018;9(1):217-230. DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2017.1389369.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salimi V, Hennus MP, Mokhtari-Azad T, et al. Opioid receptors control viral replication in the airways. Crit Care Med. 2013;41(1):205–214.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tahamtan A, Tavakoli-Yaraki M, Rygiel TP, et al. Effects of cannabinoids and their receptors on viral infections. J Med Virol. 2016;88(1):1-12. DOI: 10.1002/jmv.24292.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tahamtan A, Tavakoli-Yaraki M, Mokhtari-Azad T, et al. Opioids and viral infections: a double-edged sword. Front Microbiol. 2016;7:970.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hattori S, Shimojo N, Mashimo T, et al. Relationship between RANTES polymorphisms and respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis in a Japanese infant population. Jpn J Infect Dis. 2011;64(3):242‐245.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao DY, Wen GY, Tian M, et al. Association of RANTES gene promoter‐28C/G polymorphism with respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis. Zhonghua Er Ke Za Zhi. 2008;46:89‐93. Chinese.
   Google Scholar
• Puthothu B, Krueger M, Heinze J, et al. Impact of IL8 and IL8‐receptor alpha polymorphisms on the genetics of bronchial asthma and severe RSV infections. Clin Mol Allergy. 2006;4(1):2.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hull J, Thomson A, Kwiatkowski D. Association of respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis with the interleukin 8 gene region in UK families. Thorax. 2000;55(12):1023‐1027.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoebee B, Rietveld E, Bont L, et al. Association of severe respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis with interleukin‐4 and interleukin‐4 receptor alpha polymorphisms. J Infect Dis. 2003;187(1):2‐11.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang M, Lu Y, Zhang X, et al. Interleukin‐4 polymorphism is associated with severity of respiratory syncytial virus infection. J Paediatr Child Health. 2016;52(1):25‐29.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marr N, Hirschfeld AF, Lam A, et al. Assessment of genetic associations between common single nucleotide polymorphisms in RIG‐I‐like receptor and IL‐4 signaling genes and severe respiratory syncytial virus infection in children: a candidate gene case‐control study. PLoS One. 2014;9(6):e100269.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mufson MA, Örvell C, Rafnar B, et al. Two distinct subtypes of human respiratory syncytial virus. J Gen Virol. 1985;66(10):2111–2124.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Venter M, Madhi SA, Tiemessen CT, et al. Genetic diversity and molecular epidemiology of respiratory syncytial virus over four consecutive seasons in South Africa: identification of new subgroup A and B genotypes. J Gen Virol. 2001;82(9):2117–2124.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Peret TC, Hall CB, Hammond GW, et al. Circulation patterns of group A and B human respiratory syncytial virus genotypes in 5 communities in North America. J Infect Dis. 2000;181(6):1891–1896.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dapat IC, Shobugawa Y, Sano Y, et al. New genotypes within respiratory syncytial virus group B genotype BA in Niigata, Japan. J Clin Microbiol. 2010;48(9):3423–3427.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baek YH, Choi EH, Song M-S, et al. Prevalence and genetic characterization of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) in hospitalized children in Korea. Arch Virol. 2012;157(6):1039–1050.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khor C-S, Sam I-C, Hooi P-S, et al. Displacement of predominant respiratory syncytial virus genotypes in Malaysia between 1989 and 2011. Infect Genet Evol. 2013;14:357–360.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Auksornkitti V, Kamprasert N, Thongkomplew S, et al. Molecular characterization of human respiratory syncytial virus, 2010–2011: identification of genotype ON1 and a new subgroup B genotype in Thailand. Arch Virol. 2014;159(3):499–507.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agoti CN, Mwihuri AG, Sande CJ, et al. Genetic relatedness of infecting and reinfecting respiratory syncytial virus strains identified in a birth cohort from rural Kenya. J Infect Dis. 2012;206(10):1532–1541.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tognarelli EI, Bueno SM, González PA. Immune-modulation by the human respiratory syncytial virus: focus on dendritic cells. Front Immunol. 2019;10:810. DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.00810 . eCollection 2019.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeVincenzo JP, El Saleeby CM, Bush AJ. Respiratory syncytial virus load predicts disease severity in previously healthy infants. J Infect Dis. 2005;191:1861–1868.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Legg JP, Hussain IR, Warner JA, et al. Type 1 and type 2 cytokine imbalance in acute respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2003;168:633–639.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin ET, Kuypers J, Heugel J, et al. Clinical disease and viral load in children infected with respiratory syncytial virus or human metapneumovirus. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2008;62:382–388.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hall CB, Walsh EE, Schnabel KC, et al. Occurrence of groups a and B of respiratory syncytial virus over 15 years: associated epidemiologic and clinical characteristics in hospitalized and ambulatory children. J Infect Dis. 1990;162:1283–1290.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jafri HS, Wu X, Makari D, et al. Distribution of respiratory syncytial virus subtypes A and B among infants presenting to the emergency department with lower respiratory tract infection or apnea. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2013;32:335–340.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tabarani CM, Bonville CA, Suryadevara M, et al. Novel inflammatory markers, clinical risk factors and virus ty pe associated with severe respiratory syncytial virus infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2013;32:e437–e442.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodriguez-Fernandez R, Tapia LI, Yang C-F, et al. Respiratory syncytial virus genotypes, host immune profiles, and disease severity in young children hospitalized with bronchiolitis. J Infect Dis. 2018;217:24–34.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laham FR, Mansbach JM, Piedra PA, et al. Clinical profiles of respiratory syncytial virus subtypes a AND B among children hospitalized with bronchiolitis. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2017;36:808–810.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Comas-García A, Noyola DE, Cadena-Mota S, et al. Respiratory syncytial virus-a ON1 genotype emergence in Central Mexico in 2009 and evidence of multiple duplication events. J Infect Dis. 2018;217:1089–1098.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McIntosh ED, De Silva LM, Oates RK. Clinical severity of respiratory syncytial virus group A and B infection in Sydney, Australia. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1993;12:815–819.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hornsleth A, Klug B, Nir M, et al. Severity of respiratory syncytial virus disease related to type and genotype of virus and to cytokine values in nasopharyngeal secretions. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1998;17:1114–1121.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Panayiotou C, Richter J, Koliou M, et al. Epidemiology of respiratory syncytial virus in children in Cyprus during three consecutive winter seasons (2010–2013): age distribution, seasonality and association between prevalent genotypes and disease severity. Epidemiol Infect. 2014;142:2406–2411.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liang X, Liu DH, De Chen LG, et al. Gradual replacement of all previously circulating respiratory syncytial virus A strain with the novel ON1 genotype in Lanzhou from 2010 to 2017. Medicine (Baltimore). 2019 May;98(19):e15542. DOI: 10.1097/MD.0000000000015542.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trento A, Galiano M, Videla C, et al. Major changes in the G protein of human respiratory syncytial virus isolates introduced by a duplication of 60 nucleotides. J Gen Virol. 2003;84:3115–3120.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirano E, Kobayashi M, Tsukagoshi H, et al. Molecular evolution of human respiratory syncytial virus attachment glycoprotein (G) gene of new genotype ON1 and ancestor NA1. Infect Genet Evol. 2014 Dec 1;28:183–191.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boyoglu-Barnum S, Todd SO, Meng J, et al. Mutating the CX3C motif in the G protein should make a live respiratory syncytial virus vaccine safer and more effective. J Virol. 2017;91:e02059–e02016.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Currier MG, Lee S, Stobart CC, et al. EGFR interacts with the fusion protein of respiratory syncytial virus strain 2–20 and mediates infection and mucin expression. PLoS Pathog. 2016;12:e1005622.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Midulla F, Nenna R, Scagnolari C, et al. How respiratory syncytial virus genotypes influence the clinical course in infants hospitalized for bronchiolitis. J Infect Dis. 2018;219(4):526–534.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Streng A, Goettler D, Haerlein M, et al. Spread and clinical severity of respiratory syncytial virus A genotype ON1 in Germany, 2011–2017. BMC Infect Dis. 2019;19(1):613.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vandini S, Biagi C, Lanari M. Respiratory syncytial virus: the influence of serotype and genotype variability on clinical course of infection. Int J Mol Sci. 2017;18(8):1717.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El Saleeby CM, Bush AJ, Harrison LM, et al. Respiratory syncytial virus load, viral dynamics, and disease severity in previously healthy naturally infected children. J Infect Dis. 2011;204(7):996–1002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garcia-Mauriño C, Moore-Clingenpeel M, Thomas J, et al. Viral load dynamics and clinical disease severity in infants with respiratory syncytial virus infection. J Infect Dis. 2018;219(8):1207–1215.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diaz-Diaz A, Garcia-Maurino C, Jordan-Villegas A, et al. Viral bacterial interactions in children: impact on clinical outcomes. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2019;38(6S):S14–S9.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Asner S, Rose W, Petrich A, et al. Is virus coinfection a predictor of severity in children with viral respiratory infections? Clin Microbiol Infect. 2015;21(3):264.e1-. e6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calvo C, García-García ML, Pozo F, et al. Respiratory syncytial virus coinfections with rhinovirus and human bocavirus in hospitalized children. Medicine (Baltimore). 2015;94(42):e1788.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martinez-Roig A, Salvadó M, Caballero-Rabasco M, et al. Viral coinfection in childhood respiratory tract infections. Archivos de Bronconeumología. 2015;51(1):5–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoshida L-M, Suzuki M, Nguyen HA, et al. Respiratory syncytial virus: co-infection and paediatric lower respiratory tract infections. Eur Respir J. 2013;42(2):461–469.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Steenhuijsen Piters WA, Heinonen S, Hasrat R, et al. Nasopharyngeal microbiota, host transcriptome, and disease severity in children with respiratory syncytial virus infection. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2016;194(9):1104–1115.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vandini S, Corvaglia L, Alessandroni R, et al. Respiratory syncytial virus infection in infants and correlation with meteorological factors and air pollutants. Ital J Pediatr. 2013;39(1):1.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sloan C, Moore ML, Hartert T. Impact of pollution, climate, and sociodemographic factors on spatiotemporal dynamics of seasonal respiratory viruses. Clin Transl Sci. 2011;4(1):48–54.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Birkhaug IM, Inchley CS, Aamodt G, et al. Infectious burden of respiratory syncytial virus in relation to time of birth modifies the risk of lower respiratory tract infection in infancy: the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2013;32(6):e235–e41.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Korsten K, Bont L. Seasonal immunisation against respiratory syncytial virus disease. Lancet Public Health. 2017;2(8):e344–e5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tang JW, Loh TP. Correlations between climate factors and incidence – a contributor to RSV seasonality. Rev Med Virol. 2014 Jan;24(1):15–34.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Darniot M, Pitoiset C, Milliere L, et al. Different meteorological parameters influence metapneumovirus and respiratory syncytial virus activity. J Clin Virol. 2018;104:77‐82.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paynter S. Humidity and respiratory virus transmission in tropical and temperate settings. Epidemiol Infect. 2015;143(6):1110–1118.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwartz J. Air pollution and children’s health. Pediatrics. 2004;113(Supplement 3):1037–1043.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mansbach JM, Piedra PA, Stevenson MD, et al. Prospective multicenter study of children with bronchiolitis requiring mechanical ventilation. Pediatrics. 2012;130(3):e492–e500.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferolla FM, Hijano DR, Acosta PL, et al. Macronutrients during pregnancy and life-threatening respiratory syncytial virus infections in children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2013;187(9):983–990.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stevenson MD, Mansbach JM, Mowad E, et al. Prenatal versus postnatal tobacco smoke exposure and intensive care use in children hospitalized with bronchiolitis. Acad Pediatr. 2016;16(5):446–452.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheemarla NR, Naidu S, Guerrero-Plata MA. Prenatal smoke exposure exacerbates lung inflammatory response by modulating neutrophil infiltration to the lungs after RSV infection. Am Assoc Immnol. 2018;200(1_Suppl)168.18.
   Google Scholar
• Cheemarla NR, Uche IK, McBride K, et al. In utero tobacco smoke exposure alters lung inflammation, viral clearance and CD8+ T cell responses in neonatal mice infected with respiratory syncytial virus. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2019;317:L212–L221.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belderbos ME, Houben ML, Wilbrink B, et al. Cord blood vitamin D deficiency is associated with respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis. Pediatrics. 2011;127(6):e1513–e20.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greiller C, Martineau A. Modulation of the immune response to respiratory viruses by vitamin D. Nutrients. 2015;7(6):4240–4270.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neuzil KM, Gruber WC, Chytil F, et al. Serum vitamin A levels in respiratory syncytial virus infection. J Pediatr. 1994 Mar 1;124(3):433–436.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGill JL, Kelly SM, Guerra-Maupome M, et al. Vitamin A deficiency impairs the immune response to intranasal vaccination and RSV infection in neonatal calves. Sci Rep. 2019 Oct 22;9(1):1–4.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Biesbroek G, Bosch AA, Wang X, et al. The impact of breastfeeding on nasopharyngeal microbial communities in infants. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2014;190(3):298–308.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Biesbroek G, Tsivtsivadze E, Sanders EA, et al. Early respiratory microbiota composition determines bacterial succession patterns and respiratory health in children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2014;190(11):1283–1292.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pendse M, Hooper LV. Immunology: mum’s microbes boost baby’s immunity. Nature. 2016;533(7601):42.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shi T, Balsells E, Wastnedge E, et al. Risk factors for respiratory syncytial virus associated with acute lower respiratory infection in children under five years: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Glob Health. 2015;5(2):020416. DOI: 10.7189/jogh.05.020416.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar