881
Views
4
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Mediastinal lymphadenopathy: a practical approach

, , ORCID Icon, , , , ORCID Icon, , ORCID Icon, , , & ORCID Icon show all
Pages 1317-1334 | Received 03 Feb 2021, Accepted 19 Apr 2021, Published online: 06 May 2021

References

  • Evison M, Crosbie PAJ, Morris J, et al. A study of patients with isolated mediastinal and hilar lymphadenopathy undergoing EBUS-TBNA. BMJ Open Respir Res. 2014 May 31;1(1):e000040.
  • Mohan A, Naik S, Pandey RM, et al. Diagnostic utility of endobronchial ultrasound guided transbronchial needle aspiration for mediastinal lesions: a prospective three year, single centre analysis. Thorac Cancer. 2011 Nov;2(4):183–189.
  • Dhamija A, Basu A, Sharma V, et al. Mediastinal adenopathy in india: through the eyes of endobranchial ultrasound. J Assoc Physicians India. 2015 Sep;63(9):15–18.
  • Madan K, Mohan A, Ayub II, et al. Initial experience with endobronchial ultrasound-guided transbronchial needle aspiration (EBUS-TBNA) from a tuberculosis endemic population. J Bronchology Interv Pulmonol. 2014 Jul;21(3):208–214.
  • Whitten CR, Khan S, Munneke GJ, et al. A diagnostic approach to mediastinal abnormalities. Radiogr Rev Publ Radiol Soc N Am Inc. 2007 Jun;27(3):657–671.
  • Carter BW, Benveniste MF, Madan R, et al. ITMIG classification of mediastinal compartments and multidisciplinary approach to mediastinal masses. Radiogr Rev Publ Radiol Soc N Am Inc. 2017 Apr;37(2):413–436.
  • El-Sherief AH, Lau CT, Wu CC, et al. International association for the study of lung cancer (IASLC) lymph node map: radiologic review with CT illustration. Radiogr Rev Publ Radiol Soc N Am Inc. 2014 Oct;34(6):1680–1691.
  • Lynch JP, Kazerooni EA, Gay SE. Pulmonary sarcoidosis. Clin Chest Med. 1997 Dec;18(4):755–785.
  • Baughman RP, Teirstein AS, Judson MA, et al. Clinical characteristics of patients in a case control study of sarcoidosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001 Nov 15;164(10 Pt 1):1885–1889.
  • Nunes H, Uzunhan Y, Gille T, et al. Imaging of sarcoidosis of the airways and lung parenchyma and correlation with lung function. Eur Respir J. 2012 Sep;40(3):750–765.
  • Remy-Jardin M, Giraud F, Remy J, et al. Pulmonary sarcoidosis: role of CT in the evaluation of disease activity and functional impairment and in prognosis assessment. Radiology. 1994 Jun;191(3):675–680.
  • Madan K, Nattusamy L, Jain D, et al. Vocal cord palsy caused by mediastinal tuberculosis. Trop Doct. 2016 Apr;46(2):102–105.
  • Madan K, Venkatnarayan K, Shalimar N, et al. Successful medical management of tuberculous broncho-oesophageal fistula. BMJ Case Rep. 2014 Mar 11;2014:bcr2013202560. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bcr-2013-202560.
  • Madan K, Ayub II, Jain D, et al. Necrotic mediastinal lymph node enlargement in a middle-aged female. Lung India Off Organ Indian Chest Soc. 2015 Jun;32(3):293–295.
  • Bhalla AS, Goyal A, Guleria R, et al. Chest tuberculosis: radiological review and imaging recommendations. Indian J Radiol Imaging. 2015 Sep;25(3):213–225.
  • Azar MM, Hage CA. Clinical perspectives in the diagnosis and management of Histoplasmosis. Clin Chest Med. 2017 Sep;38(3):403–415.
  • Kurowski R, Ostapchuk M. Overview of Histoplasmosis. Am Fam Physician. 2002 Dec 15;66(12):2247–2252.
  • Wheat LJ, Conces D, Allen SD, et al. Pulmonary histoplasmosis syndromes: recognition, diagnosis, and management. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2004 Apr;25(2):129–144.
  • Grover SB, Midha N, Gupta M, et al. Imaging spectrum in disseminated Histoplasmosis: case report and brief review. Australas Radiol. 2005 Apr;49(2):175–178.
  • Radin DR. Disseminated histoplasmosis: abdominal CT findings in 16 patients. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1991 Nov;157(5):955–958.
  • Egressy K VL, Mohammed M, Ferguson JS. The use of endobronchial ultrasound in the diagnosis of subacute pulmonary Histoplasmosis. Diagn Ther Endosc. 2015;2015:510863.
  • Mohan A, Shrestha P, Madan K, et al. A prospective outcome assessment after bronchoscopic interventions for malignant central airway obstruction. J Bronchol Interv Pulmonol. 2020 Apr;27(2):95–105.
  • Castellino RA, Blank N, Hoppe RT, et al. Hodgkin disease: contributions of chest CT in the initial staging evaluation. Radiology. 1986 Sep;160(3):603–605.
  • Castellino RA, Hilton S, O’Brien JP, et al. Non-Hodgkin lymphoma: contribution of chest CT in the initial staging evaluation. Radiology. 1996 Apr;199(1):129–132.
  • Sharma A, Fidias P, Hayman LA, et al. Patterns of lymphadenopathy in thoracic malignancies. Radiogr Rev Publ Radiol Soc N Am Inc. 2004 Apr;24(2):419–434.
  • Lashari BH, Asai M, Randleman G, et al. Sarcoid-like mediastinal lymphadenopathy in gynecologic malignancy. Pulm Med. 2018;2018:5141575.
  • Craun JB, Banks KP, Clemenshaw MN, et al. Sarcoidlike reaction of neoplasia causing hypermetabolic thoracic adenopathy in setting of extrathoracic malignancy: report of two cases and a review of the differential diagnostic considerations. J Nucl Med Technol. 2012 Dec;40(4):231–235.
  • Grados A, Ebbo M, Bernit E, et al. Sarcoidosis occurring after solid cancer: a nonfortuitous association: report of 12 cases and review of the literature. Medicine (Baltimore). 2015 Jul;94(28):e928.
  • Williams GT, Williams WJ. Granulomatous inflammation–a review. J Clin Pathol. 1983 Jul;36(7):723–733.
  • Grosu HB, Ost DE, Morice RC, et al. Mediastinal granulomatous inflammation and overall survival in patients with a history of malignancy. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2015 Oct;12(10):1534–1541.
  • Ichiki Y, Hamatsu T, Suehiro T, et al. An idiopathic azygos vein aneurysm mimicking a mediastinal mass. Ann Thorac Surg. 2014 Jul;98(1):338–340.
  • Çay Ü, Dağdelen EÇ, Özçelik Z, et al. A paediatric case of pulmonary hydatid cyst presented with mediastinal lymphadenopathy. Turk Parazitolojii Derg. 2020 Dec 2;44(4):270–272.
  • Savoca CJ, Austin JH, Goldberg HI. The right paratracheal stripe. Radiology. 1977 Feb;122(2):295–301.
  • Dua R, Singhal A. A cause of mediastinal widening. Lung India Off Organ Indian Chest Soc. 2016 Aug;33(4):453–454.
  • Kiyono K, Sone S, Sakai F, et al. The number and size of normal mediastinal lymph nodes: a postmortem study. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1988 Apr;150(4):771–776.
  • Toloza EM, Harpole L, McCrory DC. Noninvasive staging of non-small cell lung cancer: a review of the current evidence. Chest. 2003 Jan;123(1Suppl):137S–146S.
  • Chang JM, Lee HJ, Goo JM, et al. False positive and false negative FDG-PET scans in various thoracic diseases. Korean J Radiol. 2006 Mar 7;7(1):57–69.
  • Teirstein AS, Machac J, Almeida O, et al. Results of 188 whole-body fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography scans in 137 patients with sarcoidosis. Chest. 2007 Dec;132(6):1949–1953.
  • Guleria R, Jyothidasan A, Madan K, et al. Utility of FDG-PET-CT scanning in assessing the extent of disease activity and response to treatment in sarcoidosis. Lung India Off Organ Indian Chest Soc. 2014 Oct;31(4):323–330.
  • Deppen SA, Blume JD, Kensinger CD, et al. Accuracy of FDG-PET to diagnose lung cancer in areas with infectious lung disease: a meta-analysis. JAMA. 2014 Sep 24;312(12):1227–1236.
  • D’souza MM, Jaimini A, Bansal A, et al. FDG-PET/CT in lymphoma. Indian J Radiol Imaging. 2013 Oct;23(4):354–365.
  • Kadaria D, Archie DS, SultanAli I, et al. Dual time point positron emission tomography/computed tomography scan in evaluation of intrathoracic lesions in an area endemic for Histoplasmosis and with high prevalence of sarcoidosis. Am J Med Sci. 2013 Nov;346(5):358–362.
  • Zhuang H, Pourdehnad M, Lambright ES, et al. Dual time point 18F-FDG PET imaging for differentiating malignant from inflammatory processes. J Nucl Med Off Publ Soc Nucl Med. 2001 Sep;42(9):1412–1417.
  • Mochizuki T, Tsukamoto E, Kuge Y, et al. FDG uptake and glucose transporter subtype expressions in experimental tumor and inflammation models. J Nucl Med Off Publ Soc Nucl Med. 2001 Oct;42(10):1551–1555.
  • Bhalla AS, Das A, Naranje P, et al. Dilemma of diagnosing thoracic sarcoidosis in tuberculosis-endemic regions: an imaging-based approach. Part 2. Indian J Radiol Imaging. 2017 Dec;27(4):380–388.
  • Sodhi A, Supakul R, Williams GW, et al. Role of Transbronchial needle aspiration (conventional and ebus guided) in the diagnosis of Histoplasmosis in patients presenting with mediastinal Lymphadenopathy. South Med J. 2017 Jan;110(1):33–36.
  • Madan K, Dhungana A, Mohan A, et al. Conventional Transbronchial needle aspiration versus endobronchial ultrasound-guided Transbronchial needle aspiration, with or without rapid on-site evaluation, for the diagnosis of Sarcoidosis: a randomized controlled trial. J Bronchol Interv Pulmonol. 2017 Jan;24(1):48–58.
  • Madan NK, Madan K, Jain D, et al. utility of conventional transbronchial needle aspiration with rapid on-site evaluation (c-TBNA-ROSE) at a tertiary care center with endobronchial ultrasound (EBUS) facility. J Cytol. 2016 Mar;33(1):22–26.
  • Madan K, Mohan A, Agarwal R, et al. A survey of flexible bronchoscopy practices in India: the Indian bronchoscopy survey (2017). Lung India Off Organ Indian Chest Soc 2018 Apr;35(2):98–107.
  • Di Felice C, Young B, Matta M. Comparison of specimen adequacy and diagnostic accuracy of a 25-gauge and 22-gauge needle in endobronchial ultrasound-guided transbronchial needle aspiration. J Thorac Dis. 2019 Aug;11(8):3643–3649.
  • Kinoshita T, Ujiie H, Schwock J, et al. Clinical evaluation of the utility of a flexible 19-gauge EBUS-TBNA needle. J Thorac Dis. 2018 Apr;10(4):2388–2396.
  • Wahidi MM, Herth F, Yasufuku K, et al. Technical aspects of endobronchial ultrasound-guided Transbronchial needle aspiration: CHEST guideline and expert panel report. Chest. 2016 Mar;149(3):816–835.
  • Yarmus L, Akulian J, Gilbert C, et al. Optimising endobronchial ultrasound for molecular analysis. How many passes are needed? Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2013 Dec;10(6):636–643.
  • Oki M, Saka H, Ando M, et al. How many passes are needed for endobronchial ultrasound-guided Transbronchial needle aspiration for Sarcoidosis? a prospective multicenter study. Respir Int Rev Thorac Dis. 2018;95(4):251–257.
  • Zhu T, Zhang X, Xu J, et al. Endobronchial ultrasound guided-transbronchial needle aspiration vs. conventional transbronchial needle aspiration in the diagnosis of mediastinal masses: a meta-analysis. Mol Clin Oncol. 2014 Jan;2(1):151–155.
  • Mehta RM, Biraris PR, Pattabhiraman V, et al. Defining expanded areas in EBUS sampling: EBUS guided trans- and intra-pulmonary artery needle aspiration, with review of transvascular EBUS. Clin Respir J. 2018 May;12(5):1958–1963.
  • Von Bartheld MB, Van Breda A, Annema JT. Complication rate of endosonography (endobronchial and endoscopic ultrasound): a systematic review. Respir Int Rev Thorac Dis. 2014;87(4):343–351.
  • Dong X, Qiu X, Liu Q, et al. Endobronchial ultrasound-guided transbronchial needle aspiration in the mediastinal staging of non-small cell lung cancer: a meta-analysis. Ann Thorac Surg. 2013 Oct;96(4):1502–1507.
  • Muthu V, Sehgal IS, Dhooria S, et al. Efficacy of Endosonographic procedures in mediastinal restaging of lung cancer after neoadjuvant therapy: a systematic review and diagnostic accuracy meta-analysis. Chest. 2018 Jul;154(1):99–109.
  • Watanabe S, Asamura H, Suzuki K, et al. Problems in diagnosis and surgical management of clinical N1 non-small cell lung cancer. Ann Thorac Surg. 2005 May;79(5):1682–1685.
  • Gómez-Caro A, Garcia S, Reguart N, et al. Incidence of occult mediastinal node involvement in cN0 non-small-cell lung cancer patients after negative uptake of positron emission tomography/computer tomography scan. Eur J Cardio-Thorac Surg Off J Eur Assoc Cardio-Thorac Surg. 2010 May;37(5):1168–1174.
  • Herth FJF. Nonsurgical staging of the mediastinum: EBUS and EUS. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2011 Feb;32(1):62–68.
  • Kinsey CM, Arenberg DA. Endobronchial ultrasound-guided transbronchial needle aspiration for non-small cell lung cancer staging. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2014 Mar 15;189(6):640–649.
  • Block MI. Endobronchial ultrasound for lung cancer staging: how many stations should be sampled? Ann Thorac Surg. 2010 May;89(5):1582–1587.
  • De Leyn P, Dooms C, Kuzdzal J, et al. Revised ESTS guidelines for preoperative mediastinal lymph node staging for non-small-cell lung cancer. Eur J Cardio-Thorac Surg Off J Eur Assoc Cardio-Thorac Surg. 2014 May;45(5):787–798.
  • Herth FJF, Eberhardt R, Vilmann P, et al. Real-time endobronchial ultrasound guided transbronchial needle aspiration for sampling mediastinal lymph nodes. Thorax. 2006 Sep;61(9):795–798.
  • Lee HS, Lee GK, Lee H-S, et al. Real-time endobronchial ultrasound-guided transbronchial needle aspiration in mediastinal staging of non-small cell lung cancer: how many aspirations per target lymph node station? Chest. 2008 Aug;134(2):368–374.
  • Varela-Lema L, Fernández-Villar A, Ruano-Ravina A. Effectiveness and safety of endobronchial ultrasound-transbronchial needle aspiration: a systematic review. Eur Respir J. 2009 May;33(5):1156–1164.
  • Dhooria S, Agarwal R, Aggarwal AN, et al. Differentiating tuberculosis from sarcoidosis by sonographic characteristics of lymph nodes on endobronchial ultrasonography: a study of 165 patients. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2014 Aug;148(2):662–667.
  • Li W, Zhang T, Chen Y, et al. Diagnostic value of convex probe endobronchial ultrasound-guided transbronchial needle aspiration in mediastinal tuberculous lymphadenitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Med Sci Monit Int Med J Exp Clin Res. 2015 Jul;16(21):2064–2072.
  • Gupta D, Dadhwal DS, Agarwal R, et al. Endobronchial ultrasound-guided transbronchial needle aspiration vs conventional transbronchial needle aspiration in the diagnosis of sarcoidosis. Chest. 2014 Sep;146(3):547–556.
  • Madan K, Guleria R. Comparison of methods to diagnose sarcoidosis. JAMA. 2013 Oct 16;310(15):1624.
  • P B S, Mittal S, Madan K, et al. Endoscopic ultrasound in the diagnosis of sarcoidosis: a forgotten tool? Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2020 Nov 1;202(9):1320–1321.
  • Kennedy MP, Jimenez CA, Bruzzi JF, et al. Endobronchial ultrasound-guided transbronchial needle aspiration in the diagnosis of lymphoma. Thorax. 2008 Apr;63(4):360–365.
  • Moonim MT, Breen R, Fields PA, et al. Diagnosis and subtyping of de novo and relapsed mediastinal lymphomas by endobronchial ultrasound needle aspiration. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2013 Nov 15;188(10):1216–1223.
  • Iqbal S, DePew ZS, Kurtin PJ, et al. Endobronchial ultrasound and lymphoproliferative disorders: a retrospective study. Ann Thorac Surg. 2012 Dec;94(6):1830–1834.
  • Dhooria S, Mehta RM, Madan K, et al. A multicenter study on the utility of EBUS-TBNA and EUS-B-FNA in the diagnosis of mediastinal Lymphoma. J Bronchol Interv Pulmonol. 2019 Jul;26(3):199–209.
  • Ayub II, Mohan A, Madan K, et al. identification of specific EBUS sonographic characteristics for predicting benign mediastinal lymph nodes. Clin Respir J. 2018 Feb;12(2):681–690.
  • Lee N, Inoue K, Yamamoto R, et al. Patterns of internal echoes in lymph nodes in the diagnosis of lung cancer metastasis. World J Surg. 1992 Oct;16(5):986–993. discussion 993994.
  • Fujiwara T, Yasufuku K, Nakajima T, et al. The utility of sonographic features during endobronchial ultrasound-guided transbronchial needle aspiration for lymph node staging in patients with lung cancer: a standard endobronchial ultrasound image classification system. Chest. 2010 Sep;138(3):641–647.
  • Schmid-Bindert G, Jiang H, Kähler G, et al. Predicting malignancy in mediastinal lymph nodes by endobronchial ultrasound: a new ultrasound scoring system. Respirol Carlton Vic. 2012 Nov;17(8):1190–1198.
  • Nakajima T, Anayama T, Shingyoji M, et al. Vascular image patterns of lymph nodes for the prediction of metastatic disease during EBUS-TBNA for mediastinal staging of lung cancer. J Thorac Oncol Off Publ Int Assoc Study Lung Cancer. 2012 Jun;7(6):1009–1014.
  • Wang Memoli JS, El-Bayoumi E, Pastis NJ, et al. Using endobronchial ultrasound features to predict lymph node metastasis in patients with lung cancer. Chest. 2011 Dec;140(6):1550–1556.
  • Izumo T, Sasada S, Chavez C, et al. Endobronchial ultrasound elastography in the diagnosis of mediastinal and hilar lymph nodes. Jpn J Clin Oncol. 2014 Oct;44(10):956–962.
  • Fujiwara T, Nakajima T, Inage T, et al. The combination of endobronchial elastography and sonographic findings during endobronchial ultrasound-guided transbronchial needle aspiration for predicting nodal metastasis. Thorac Cancer. 2019 Oct;10(10):2000–2005.
  • Sehgal IS, Dhooria S, Aggarwal AN, et al. Impact of Rapid On-Site Cytological Evaluation (ROSE) on the diagnostic yield of Transbronchial needle aspiration during mediastinal lymph node sampling: systematic review and meta-analysis. Chest. 2018 Apr;153(4):929–938.
  • Jurado J, Saqi A, Maxfield R, et al. The efficacy of EBUS-guided transbronchial needle aspiration for molecular testing in lung adenocarcinoma. Ann Thorac Surg. 2013 Oct;96(4):1196–1202.
  • Lozano MD, Echeveste JI, Abengozar M, et al. Cytology smears in the era of molecular biomarkers in non-small cell lung cancer: doing more with less. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2018 Mar;142(3):291–298.
  • Turner SR, Buonocore D, Desmeules P, et al. Feasibility of endobronchial ultrasound transbronchial needle aspiration for massively parallel next-generation sequencing in thoracic cancer patients. Lung Cancer Amst Neth. 2018 May;119:85–90.
  • Rintoul RC, Skwarski KM, Murchison JT, et al. Endobronchial and endoscopic ultrasound-guided real-time fine-needle aspiration for mediastinal staging. Eur Respir J. 2005 Mar;25(3):416–421.
  • Herth FJF, Krasnik M, Kahn N, et al. Combined endoscopic-endobronchial ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration of mediastinal lymph nodes through a single bronchoscope in 150 patients with suspected lung cancer. Chest. 2010 Oct;138(4):790–794.
  • Bugalho A, De Santis M, Slubowski A, et al. Trans-esophageal endobronchial ultrasound-guided needle aspiration (EUS-B-NA): a road map for the chest physician. Pulmonology. 2017 Dec 11:S2173-5115(17)30162-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rppnen.2017.10.004.
  • Bugalho A, Ferreira D, Eberhardt R, et al. Diagnostic value of endobronchial and endoscopic ultrasound-guided fine needle aspiration for accessible lung cancer lesions after non-diagnostic conventional techniques: a prospective study. BMC Cancer. 2013 Mar;19(13):130.
  • Dhooria S, Aggarwal AN, Gupta D, et al. Utility and safety of endoscopic ultrasound with bronchoscope-guided fine-needle aspiration in mediastinal lymph node sampling: systematic review and meta-analysis. Respir Care. 2015 Jul;60(7):1040–1050.
  • Oki M, Saka H, Kitagawa C, et al. Transesophageal bronchoscopic ultrasound-guided fine needle aspiration for diagnosis of sarcoidosis. Respir Int Rev Thorac Dis. 2013;85(2):137–143.
  • Medford ARL, Agrawal S. Single bronchoscope combined endoscopic-endobronchial ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration for tuberculous mediastinal nodes. Chest. 2010 Nov;138(5):1274.
  • Madan K, Mittal S, Madan NK, et al. EBUS-TBNA versus EUS-B-FNA for the evaluation of undiagnosed mediastinal lymphadenopathy: the TEAM randomised controlled trial. Clin Respir J. 2020 Nov;14(11):1076–1082.
  • Vilmann P, Puri R. The complete “‘medical’” mediastinoscopy (EUS-FNA + EBUS-TBNA). Minerva Med. 2007 Aug;98(4):331–338.
  • Szlubowski A, Zieliński M, Soja J, et al. A combined approach of endobronchial and endoscopic ultrasound-guided needle aspiration in the radiologically normal mediastinum in non-small-cell lung cancer staging–a prospective trial. Eur J Cardio-Thorac Surg Off J Eur Assoc Cardio-Thorac Surg. 2010 May;37(5):1175–1179.
  • Herth FJF, Rabe KF, Gasparini S, et al. Transbronchial and transoesophageal (ultrasound-guided) needle aspirations for the analysis of mediastinal lesions. Eur Respir J. 2006 Dec;28(6):1264–1275.
  • Hwangbo B, Lee G-K, Lee HS, et al. Transbronchial and transesophageal fine-needle aspiration using an ultrasound bronchoscope in mediastinal staging of potentially operable lung cancer. Chest. 2010 Oct;138(4):795–802.
  • Lee KJ, Suh GY, Chung MP, et al. Combined endobronchial and transesophageal approach of an ultrasound bronchoscope for mediastinal staging of lung cancer. PloS One. 2014;9(3):e91893.
  • Dhooria S, Madan K, Pattabhiraman V, et al. A multicenter study on the utility and safety of EBUS-TBNA and EUS-B-FNA in children. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2016 Oct;51(10):1031–1039.
  • Gulla KM, Gunathilaka G, Jat KR, et al. utility and safety of endobronchial ultrasound-guided transbronchial needle aspiration and endoscopic ultrasound with an echobronchoscope-guided fine needle aspiration in children with mediastinal pathology. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2019 Jun;54(6):881–885.
  • Madan K, Ayub II, Mohan A, et al. Endobronchial ultrasound-guided transbronchial needle aspiration (EBUS-TBNA) in mediastinal lymphadenopathy. Indian J Pediatr. 2015 Apr;82(4):378–380.
  • Madan K, Garg P, Kabra SK, et al. Transesophageal Bronchoscopic ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration (EUS-B-FNA) in a 3-year-old child. J Bronchol Interv Pulmonol. 2015 Oct;22(4):347–350.
  • Madan K, Iyer H, Madan NK, et al. Efficacy and safety of EBUS-TBNA and EUS-B-FNA in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2021 Jan;56(1):23–33.
  • Gupta S, Seaberg K, Wallace MJ, et al. Imaging-guided percutaneous biopsy of mediastinal lesions: different approaches and anatomic considerations. Radiogr Rev Publ Radiol Soc N Am Inc. 2005 Jun;25(3):763–786. discussion 786788.
  • Jenssen C, Annema JT, Clementsen P, et al. Ultrasound techniques in the evaluation of the mediastinum, part 2: mediastinal lymph node anatomy and diagnostic reach of ultrasound techniques, clinical work up of neoplastic and inflammatory mediastinal lymphadenopathy using ultrasound techniques and how to learn mediastinal endosonography. J Thorac Dis. 2015 Oct;7(10):E439–458.
  • Harken DE, Black H, Clauss R, et al. A simple cervicomediastinal exploration for tissue diagnosis of intrathoracic disease; with comments on the recognition of inoperable carcinoma of the lung. N Engl J Med. 1954 Dec 23;251(26):1041–1044.
  • Um S-W, Kim HK, Jung S-H, et al. Endobronchial ultrasound versus mediastinoscopy for mediastinal nodal staging of non-small-cell lung cancer. J Thorac Oncol Off Publ Int Assoc Study Lung Cancer. 2015 Feb;10(2):331–337.
  • Gossot D, Toledo L, Fritsch S, et al. Mediastinoscopy vs thoracoscopy for mediastinal biopsy. Results of a prospective nonrandomised study. Chest 1996 Nov;110(5):1328–1331.
  • Porte H, Roumilhac D, Eraldi L, et al. The role of mediastinoscopy in the diagnosis of mediastinal lymphadenopathy. Eur J Cardio-Thorac Surg Off J Eur Assoc Cardio-Thorac Surg. 1998 Feb;13(2):196–199.
  • Lemaire A, Nikolic I, Petersen T, et al. Nine-year single center experience with cervical mediastinoscopy: complications and false negative rate. Ann Thorac Surg. 2006 Oct;82(4):1185–1189. discussion 11891190.
  • Jiao X, Magistrelli P, Goldstraw P. The value of cervical mediastinoscopy combined with anterior mediastinotomy in the peroperative evaluation of bronchogenic carcinoma of the left upper lobe. Eur J Cardio-Thorac Surg Off J Eur Assoc Cardio-Thorac Surg. 1997 Mar;11(3):450–454.
  • Coosemans W, Lerut TE, Van Raemdonck DE. Thoracoscopic surgery: the Belgian experience. Ann Thorac Surg. 1993 Sep;56(3):721–730.
  • Zhu F, Ma D-C, Xu N, et al. Diagnostic value of video-assisted mediastinoscopy and endobronchial ultrasound-guided Transbronchial needle aspiration for mediastinal Lymphadenectasis without pulmonary abnormalities. Med Sci Monit Int Med J Exp Clin Res. 2017 Jun;23(23):3064–3070.
  • Witte B, Hürtgen M. Video-assisted mediastinoscopic lymphadenectomy (VAMLA). J Thorac Oncol Off Publ Int Assoc Study Lung Cancer. 2007 Apr;2(4):367–369.
  • Zieliński M. Video-assisted mediastinoscopic lymphadenectomy and transcervical extended mediastinal lymphadenectomy. Thorac Surg Clin. 2012 May;22(2):219–225.
  • Sanz-Santos J, Call S. Preoperative staging of the mediastinum is an essential and multidisciplinary task. Respirol Carlton Vic. 2020 Nov;25(Suppl 2):37–48.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.