‘We Remember Them’: A Mixed Methods Study of Posttraumatic Growth, Collective Efficacy, and Agency among Survivors of Mass Violence in Isla Vista, California

References

• Ai, A. L., T. N. Tice, D. D. Whitsett, T. Ishisaka, and M. Chim. 2007. “Posttraumatic Symptoms and Growth of Kosovar war Refugees: The Influence of Hope and Cognitive Coping.” The Journal of Positive Psychology 2 (1): 55–65. doi:10.1080/17439760601069341.
   Google Scholar
• Armstrong, D., J. Shakespeare-Finch, and I. Shochet. 2015. “Organizational Belongingness Mediates the Relationship Between Sources of Stress and Posttrauma Outcomes in Firefighters.” Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy 8: 343–347. doi:10.1037/tra0000083.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Axinn, W. G., J. Barber, and D. Ghimire. 1997. “The Neighborhood History Calendar: A Data Collection Method Designed for Dynamic Multilevel Modeling.” Sociological Methodology 27: 355–392. doi:10.1111/1467-9531.271031.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bandura, A. 2002. “Social Cognitive Theory in Cultural Context.” Applied Psychology 51 (2): 269–290. doi:10.1111/1464-0597.00092.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Billies, M., V. Francisco, P. Krueger, and D. Linville. 2010. “Participatory Action Research: Our Methodological Roots.” International Review of Qualitative Research 3 (3): 277–286. doi:10.1525/irqr.2010.3.3.277.
   Google Scholar
• Borron, A., K. W. Lamm, and D. K. Atkins. 2022. “Perceptions of Personal Agency Within Communities: Validation of a Diagnostic Instrument.” Community Development 53 (3): 263–280. doi:10.1080/15575330.2021.1946577.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bourdieu, P. 1986. “The Forms of Capital.” In The Handbook of Theory: Research for the Sociology of Education, edited by J. G. Richardson, 241–258. New York, NY: Greenwood Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bridgewater, K., S. Peterson, J. McDevitt, D. Hemenway, J. Bass, P. Bothwell, and R. Everdell. 2011. “A Community-Based Systems Learning Approach to Understanding Youth Violence in Boston.” Progress in Community Health Partnerships: Research, Education, and Action 5 (1): 67–75. doi:10.1353/cpr.2011.0011.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brooks, M., N. Graham-Kevan, M. Lowe, and S. Robinson. 2017. “Rumination, Event Centrality, and Perceived Control as Predictors of Post-Traumatic Growth and Distress: The Cognitive Growth and Stress Model.” British Journal of Clinical Psychology 56: 286–302. doi:10.1111/bjc.12138.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calhoun, L., and R. G. Tedeschi. 1999. Facilitating Posttraumatic Growth: A Clinician’s Guide (LEA Series in Personality and Clinical Psychology). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
   Google Scholar
• Charmaz, K. 2006. Constructing Grounded Theory: A Practical Guide Through Qualitative Research. London: Sage Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Creswell, J. W. 2015. A Concise Introduction to Mixed Methods Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Creswell, J. W., and V. L. Plano Clark. 2011. Designing and Conducting Mixed Methods Research. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Dekel, S., C. Mandl, and Z. Solomon. 2011. “Shared and Unique Predictors of Posttraumatic Growth and Distress.” Journal of Clinical Psychology 67: 241–252. doi:10.1002/jclp.20747.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fitzgerald, J. M., D. Bernsten, and C. L. Broadbridge. 2016. “The Influences of Event Centrality in Memory Models of PTSD.” Applied Cognitive Psychology 30: 10–21. doi:10.1002/acp.3160.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frattaroli, S., K. M. Pollack, K. Jonsberg, G. Croteau, J. Rivera, and J. S. Mendel. 2010. “Streetworkers, Youth Violence Prevention, and Peacemaking in Lowell, Massachusetts: Lessons and Voices from the Community.” Progress in Community Health Partnerships: Research, Education, and Action 4 (3): 171–179. doi:10.1353/cpr.2010.0010.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fredrickson, B. L., M. M. Tugade, C. E. Waugh, and G. Larkin. 2003. “What Good are Positive Emotions in Crisis? A Prospective Study of Resilience and Emotions Following the Terrorist Attacks on the United States on September 11th, 2001.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84 (2): 365–376. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.2.365.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freire, P. 1993/1970. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Continuum.
   Google Scholar
• Gearhart, M. 2022. "Empowerment and Collective Efficacy: Insights for Community-Based Crime Prevention." Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 1–13.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gearhart, M. C., and M. L. Joseph. 2019. "Social Cohesion, Mutual Efficacy, and Informal Social Control:Enhancing the Conceptualization of Collective Efficacy." Community Development 50 (1): 3–15.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gearhart, M. C., K. A. Berg, C. Jones, and S. D. Johnson. 2019. "Fear of Crime, Racial Bias, and Gun Ownership." Health & Social Work 44 (4): 241–248.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guilfol, J. 2019. “50 Years In the Making: Isla Vista Community Center Celebrates Soft Opening.” http://dailynexus.com/2019-10-15/50-years-in-the-making-isla-vista-community-center-celebrates-soft-opening/.
   Google Scholar
• Gun Violence Archive. 2019. “Mass Shootings in 2019.” https://www.gunviolencearchive.org/reports/mass-shooting?year=2019.
   Google Scholar
• Gun Violence Archive. 2022. “Mass Shootings in 2022.” https://www.gunviolencearchive.org/reports/mass-shooting.
   Google Scholar
• Hafstad, G. S., G. Dyb, T. K. Jensen, A. M. Steinberg, and R. S. Pynoos. 2014. “PTSD Prevalence and Symptom Structure of DSM–5 Criteria in Adolescents and Young Adults Surviving the 2011 Shooting in Norway.” Journal of Affective Disorders 169: 40–46. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2014.06.055.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hauser, C. 2017. “Reddit Bans ‘Incel’ Group for Inciting Violence against Women.” https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/09/technology/incels-reddit-banned.html.
   Google Scholar
• Herrera, C., J. Torres-Vallejos, and J. Martínez-Libano. 2022. “Psychometric Properties of the Collective Efficacy Scale Short-Form in Chilean Teachers.” Frontiers in Psychology 13: 935578. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.935578.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Isla Vista Community Services District. 2022. “How We Got Here.” https://islavistacsd.ca.gov/how-we-got-here.
   Google Scholar
• Jafari, H., A. Kassan, G. Reay, and E. A. Climie. 2022. Resilience in Refugee Children and Youth: A Critical Literature Review.” Canadian Psychology / Psychologie Canadienne 63 (4): 678–694. doi:10.1037/cap0000320.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jaramillo, N., and E. D. Felix. 2021. “Psychosocial Influences on Posttraumatic Growth among University Students Following a Mass Murder.” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 91 (1): 27–35. doi:10.1037/ort0000512.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katsiyannis, A., L. J. Rappa, D. K. Whitford, and S. N. Scott. 2023. “An Examination of US School Mass Shootings, 2017–2022: Findings and Implications.” Advances in Neurodevelopmental Disorders 7 (1): 66–76. doi:10.1007/s41252-022-00277-3.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Laslo-Roth, R., S. George-Levi, and M. Margalit. 2022. “Social Participation and Posttraumatic Growth: The Serial Mediation of Hope, Social Support, and Reappraisal.” Journal of Community Psychology 50 (1): 47–63. doi:10.1002/jcop.22490.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Littleton, H., M. Kumpula, and H. Orcutt. 2011. “Posttraumatic Symptoms Following a Campus Shooting: The Role of Psychosocial Resource Loss.” Violence and Victims 26: 461–476. doi:10.1891/0886-6708.26.4.461.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, S. R., and M. Kia-Keating. 2018. “Improving Coping Self-Efficacy among Distressed Students After Exposure to University Mass Violence: A Pilot Online Intervention.” Journal of College Student Psychotherapy 32 (3): 199–219. doi:10.1080/87568225.2017.1388754.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lodise, C. 2008. Isla Vista: A Citizen’s History. Scotts Valley: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.
   Google Scholar
• Lovett, I., and A. Nagourney. 2014. “Video Rant, then Deadly Rampage in California Town.” https://web.archive.org/web/20140625064617/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/25/us/california-drive-by-shooting.html.
   Google Scholar
• Martyn, K. K., and R. F. Belli. 2002. “Retrospective Data Collection Using Event History Calendars.” Nursing Research 51: 270–274. doi:10.1097/00006199-200207000-00008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGreevy, P. 2014, August 22. “California Senate Approves Bill in Response to Isla Vista Massacre.” https://www.latimes.com/local/political/la-me-pc-california-senate-isla-vista-massacre-20140822-story.html.
   Google Scholar
• Minkler, M., and N. Wallerstein. 2008. Community-based Participatory Research for Health: From Process to Outcomes. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
   Google Scholar
• Morenoff, J. D., R. J. Sampson, and S. W. Raudenbush. 2001. “Neighborhood inequality, collective efficacy, and the spatial dynamics of urban VIOLENCE.” Criminology; An interdisciplinary Journal 39: 517–558. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2001.tb00932.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muldoon, O. T., K. Acharya, S. Jay, K. Adhikari, J. Pettigrew, and R. D. Lowe. 2017. “Community Identity and Collective Efficacy: A Social Cure for Traumatic Stress in Post-Earthquake Nepal.” European Journal of Social Psychology 47 (7): 904–915. doi:10.1002/ejsp.2330.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Musick, K., J. A. Seltzer, and C. R. Schwartz. 2008. “Neighborhood Norms and Substance use among Teens.” Social Science Research 37: 138–155. doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2007.02.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson, I. A. 2010. “From Quantitative to Qualitative: Adapting the Life History Calendar Method.” Field Methods 22 (4): 413–428. doi:10.1177/1525822X10379793.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nikolic-Ristanovic, V. 2015. “Persons with Cancer Diagnosis as Victims/Survivors: Patterns of Victimization, Empowering Support and Posttraumatic Growth.” Temida 18 (3-4): 31–52. doi:10.2298/TEM1504031N.
   Google Scholar
• Ohmer, M. L., S. Teixeira, J. Booth, A. Zuberi, and D. Kolke (2016). “Preventing violence in disadvantaged communities: Strategies for building collective efficacy and improving community health.” Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment 26 (7-8): 608–621.
   Google Scholar
• Panigrahi, G. S., and D. Suar. 2022. “Antecedents and Consequences of Resilience among Survivors of Cyclone Fani.” Current Psychology (New Brunswick, N.J.).
   Google Scholar
• Páez, D., C. Vazquez, and E. Echeburúa. 2013. “Trauma Social, Afrontamiento Comunitario y Crecimiento Postraumático Colectivo” [Social Trauma, Community Coping and Collective Posttraumatic Growth]. Crisis, vulnerabilidad y superación 50 (4): 15–50. doi:10.1177/1069397116663857.
   Google Scholar
• Prati, G., and L. Pietrantoni. 2009. “Optimism, Social Support, and Coping Strategies as Factors Contributing to Posttraumatic Growth: A Meta-Analysis.” Journal of Loss and Trauma 14: 364–388. doi:10.1080/15325020902724271.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sampson, R. J. 2008. Collective Efficacy Theory: Lessons Learned and Directions for Future Inquiry. Taking Stock, 149–167. Oxfordshire: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Sampson, R. J. 2012. Great American City: Chicago and the Enduring Neighborhood Effect. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Sampson, R. J., S. W. Raudenbush, and F. Earls. 1997. “Neighborhoods and Violent Crime: A Multilevel Study of Collective Efficacy.” Science 277: 918–924. doi:10.1126/science.277.5328.918.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Showalter, K., K. Maguire-Jack, and S. Barnhart. 2017. “Investigating the Potentially Protective Effects of Neighborhood Processes in Intimate Partner Violence.” Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma 26 (10): 1090–1103. doi:10.1080/10926771.2017.1320345.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Song, L. 2012. “Service Utilization, Perceived Changes of Self, and Life Satisfaction Among Women Who Experienced Intimate Partner Abuse: The Mediation Effect of Empowerment.” Journal of Interpersonal Violence 27 (6): 1112–1136. doi:10.1177/0886260511424495.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stajkovic, A. D., and D. S. Lee. 2001. “A Meta-Analysis of the Relationship Between Collective Efficacy and Group Performance.” Paper Presented at the National Academy of Management Meeting, August, Washington, DC.
   Google Scholar
• Steinkopf, B., R. A. Reddin, R. A. Black, V. B. Van Hasselt, and J. Couwels. 2018. “Assessment of Stress and Resiliency in Emergency Dispatchers.” Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology 33 (4): 398–411. doi:10.1007/s11896-018-9255-3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tedeschi, R. G., and L. G. Calhoun. 1996. “The Posttraumatic Growth Inventory: Measuring the Positive Legacy of Trauma.” Journal of Traumatic Stress 9: 455–471. doi:10.1002/jts.2490090305.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tingey, J. L., A. P. McGuire, O. L. Stebbins, and T. M. Erickson. 2019. “Moral Elevation and Compassionate Goals Predict Posttraumatic Growth in the Context of a College Shooting.” The Journal of Positive Psychology 14 (3): 261–270. doi:10.1080/17439760.2017.1402077.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uchino, B. N. 2004. Social Support and Physical Health: Understanding the Health Consequences of Relationships. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Vicary, A. M., and R. C. Fraley. 2010. “Student Reactions to the Shootings at Virginia Tech and Northern Illinois University: Does Sharing Grief and Support Over the Internet Affect Recovery?” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 36: 1555–1563. doi:10.1177/0146167210384880.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volgin, R., and G. Bates. 2016. “Attachment and Social Support as Predictors of Posttraumatic Stress and Posttraumatic Growth.” Traumatology 22: 184–191. doi:10.1037/trm0000083.
   Google Scholar
• Waters, L., K. Cameron, S. K. Nelson-Coffey, D. L. Crone, M. L. Kern, T. Lomas, L. Oades, et al. 2021. “Collective Wellbeing and Posttraumatic Growth During COVID-19: How Positive Psychology Can Help Families, Schools, Workplaces and Marginalized Communities.” The Journal of Positive Psychology 17 (6): 1–30.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webster, D. W., J. M. Whitehill, J. S. Vernick, and F. C. Curriero. 2013. “Effects of Baltimore’s Safe Streets Program on Gun Violence: A Replication of Chicago’s CeaseFire Program.” Journal of Urban Health 90 (1): 27–40. doi:10.1007/s11524-012-9731-5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williamson, C. 2014. “Towards a Theory of Collective Posttraumatic Growth in Rwanda: The Pursuit of Agency and Communion.” Traumatology: An International Journal 20 (2): 91–102. doi:10.1037/h0099393.
   Google Scholar
• Wlodarczyka, A., N. Basabe, D. V. Páez, and C. Reyes. 2017. “Individual and Collective Posttraumatic Growth in Victims of Natural Disasters: A Multidimensional Perspective.” Journal of Loss and Trauma 22 (5): 371–384. doi:10.1080/15325024.2017.1297657.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoshihama, M., K. Clum, A. Crampton, and B. Gillespie. 2002. “Measuring the Lifetime Experience of Domestic Violence: Application of the Life History Calendar Method.” Violence and Victims 17: 297–317. doi:10.1891/vivi.17.3.297.33663.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zieba, M. 2015. “Hope and the Affective Tone of Narratives as Correlates of Posttraumatic Growth in People who Have Lost Motor Ability.” Roczniki Psychologiczne 18 (1): 51–59. doi:10.18290/rpsych.2015.18.1-2en.
   Google Scholar
• Zwahlen, D., N. Hagenbuch, M. I. Carley, J. Jenewein, and S. Buchi. 2010. “Posttraumatic Growth in Cancer Patients and Partners-Effects of Role, Gender and the Dyad on Couples' Posttraumatic Growth Experience.” Psycho-Oncology 19: 12–20. doi:10.1002/pon.1486.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar