1,483
Views
15
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
ARTICLES

Learning to Live with Militias: Toward a Critical Policy on State Frailty

Pages 175-192 | Published online: 24 Jun 2011

References

  • Abdullahi , M. , 2004 . The dynamics of unrecognized statehood in Somalia . Unpublished MA thesis , Los Angeles , University of California
  • Andersen , L. 2007 . “ What to do: the dilemma of international engagement in fragile states ” . In Fragile states and insecure people? Violence, security, and statehood in the twenty first century , Edited by: Andersen , L. , Møller , B. and Stepputat , F. 21 – 47 . New York : Palgrave Macmillan .
  • Anonymous . 2002 . Government recognition in Somalia and regional political stability in the Horn of Africa . Journal of Modern African Studies , 40 ( 2 ) : 247 – 272 .
  • Ayoob , M. 1995 . The third world security predicament: state making, regional conflict, and the international system , Boulder, CO : Lynne Rienner .
  • Barkey , K. 1994 . Bandits and bureaucrats: the Ottoman route to state centralization , Ithaca, NY : Cornell University Press .
  • Bates , R. 2008 . When things fell apart: state failure in late-century Africa , New York : Cambridge University Press .
  • Battera , F. 2003 . Some considerations on state building in divided societies and the role of the ‘international community’: Somaliland and Somalia compared . Northeast African Studies , 10 ( 3 ) : 225 – 247 .
  • Bradbury , M. 2008 . Becoming Somaliland , Bloomington : Indiana University Press .
  • Bryden , M. 2003 . The ‘banana test’: is Somaliland ready for recognition . Annales d'Ethipie , 19 : 341 – 364 .
  • Call , C. and Cousens , E. 2008 . Ending wars and building peace: international responses to war-torn societies . International Studies Perspectives , 9 ( 1 ) : 1 – 21 .
  • Carneiro , R. 1970 . A theory of the origin of the state . Science , 21 : 733 – 738 .
  • Cassesse , A. 2007 . The Nicaragua and Tadic tests revisited in light of the ICJ judgment on genocide in Bosnia . European Journal of International Law , 18 ( 4 ) : 649 – 668 .
  • Channa , J. 2002 . Security sector reform: issues, challenges and prospects , New York : Oxford University Press .
  • Chesterman , S. 2004 . You, the people: the United Nations, transitional administration, and state-building , New York : Oxford University Press .
  • Cohen , Y , Brown , B. and Organski , A. 1981 . The paradoxical nature of state making: the violent creation of order . American Political Science Review , 75 ( 4 ) : 901 – 910 .
  • Collier , P. and Hoeffler , A. 2007 . Unintended consequences: does aid promote arms races? . Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics , 69 ( 1 ) : 1 – 28 .
  • Cordesman , A. 2008 . Iraq's insurgency and the road to civil war , Westport, CT : Praeger Security International .
  • Crandall , R. 2008 . Driven by drugs: U.S. policy toward Colombia , 2nd ed , Boulder, CO : Lynne Rienner .
  • David , S. 2008 . Catastrophic consequences: civil wars and American interests , Baltimore, MD : Johns Hopkins University Press .
  • Dawisha , A. 2009 . Iraq: a political history from independence to occupation , Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press .
  • De Waal , A. 1997 . Famine crimes: politics and the disaster relief industry , Bloomington : Indiana University Press .
  • Dodge , T. 2003 . Inventing Iraq: the failure of nation building and a history denied , New York : Columbia University Press .
  • Dreazen , Y. , 2008 . U.S. to fund Afghan militias, applying Iraq tactics . Wall Street Journal , 23 December .
  • Edelstein , D. 2008 . Occupational hazards: success and failure in military occupations , Ithaca, NY : Cornell University Press .
  • Eggertsson , T. 1997 . The old theory of economic policy and the new institutionalism . World Development , 25 ( 8 ) : 1187 – 1203 .
  • Ertman , T. 2005 . “ State formation and state building in Europe ” . In The handbook of political sociology , Edited by: Janowksi , T. , Alford , R. , Hicks , A. and Schwartz , M. 367 – 383 . New York : Cambridge University Press .
  • Fadel , L. , 2010 . Violence highlights fears of Iraqi security forces taking over after U.S. leaves . Washington Post , 18 April .
  • Fair , C. and Chalk , P. 2006 . Fortifying Pakistan: the role of U.S. internal security assistance , Washington, DC : US Institute of Peace Press .
  • Farer , T. 1979 . War clouds on the Horn of Africa: the widening storm , Rev. ed , Washington, DC : Carnegie Endowment for International Peace .
  • Fearon , J. and Laitin , D. 2004 . Neotrusteeship and the problem of weak states . International Security , 28 ( 4 ) : 5 – 49 .
  • Filkins , D. , 2009 . Afghan militias battle Taliban with aid of U.S . New York Times , 21 November .
  • Fishel , J. and Manwaring , M. 2006 . Uncomfortable wars revisited , Norman, OK : University of Oklahoma Press .
  • Frisch , H. 2002 . Explaining third world security structures . Journal of Strategic Studies , 25 ( 3 ) : 161 – 190 .
  • Fukuyama , F. 2004 . State-building: governance and world order in the 21st century , Ithaca, NY : Cornell University Press .
  • George , A. and Bennett , A. 2005 . Case studies and theory development in the social sciences , Cambridge, MA : MIT Press .
  • Gerring , J. 2007 . Case study research: principles and practices , New York : Cambridge University Press .
  • Gettleman , J. and MacFarquhar , N. , 2010 . Somalia food aid bypasses needy, U.N. study says . New York Times , 9 March .
  • Ghani , A. and Lockhart , C. 2008 . Fixing failed states: a framework for rebuilding a fractured world , New York : Oxford University Press .
  • Goldstone , J. , et al. , 2010 . A global model for forecasting political instability . American Journal of Political Science , 54 (1) , 190–208.
  • Harff , B. 2003 . No lessons learned from the Holocaust? Assessing risks of genocide and politicides since 1955 . American Political Science Review , 97 : 57 – 73 .
  • Heald , S. 2007 . Controlling crime and corruption from below: Sungusungu in Kenya . International Relations , 21 : 183 – 199 .
  • Hills , A. 1997 . Warlords, militia and conflict in contemporary Africa: a re-examination of terms . Small Wars & Insurgencies , 8 ( 1 ) : 35 – 51 .
  • Hoehne , M. , 2007 . Puntland and Somaliland clashing in northern Somalia: who cuts the Gordian knot? Social Science Research Council Horn of Africa Project , 7 November. Available from: http://hornofafrica.ssrc.org/Hoehne/ [Accessed 3 May 2010] .
  • Hoehne , M. 2009 . Mimesis and mimicry in dynamics of state and identity formation in northern Somalia . Africa , 79 ( 2 ) : 252 – 281 .
  • Ignatieff , M. 2002 . “ Intervention and state failure ” . In The new killing fields: massacre and the politics of intervention, 229–244 , Edited by: Mills , N. and Brunner , K. New York : Basic Books .
  • Jackson , R. 2003 . Quasi-states: sovereignty, international relations, and the third world , New York : Cambridge University Press .
  • Kaldor , M. 2007 . New & old wars: organized violence in global era , Stanford : Stanford University Press .
  • Kilcullen , D. 2009 . The accidental guerrilla: fighting small wars in the midst of a big one , New York : Oxford University Press .
  • King , C. 2001 . The benefits of ethnic war: understanding Eurasia's unrecognized states . World Politics , 53 ( 4 ) : 524 – 552 .
  • Klare , M. 2004 . “ The deadly connection: paramilitary bands, small arms diffusion, and state failure ” . In When states fail, 116–134 , Edited by: Robert , I. Rotberg . Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press .
  • Krain , M. 1997 . State-sponsored mass murder: the onset and severity of genocides and politicides . Journal of Conflict Resolution , 41 ( 3 ) : 331 – 360 .
  • Krasner , S. 2006 . Sharing sovereignty: new institutions for collapsed and failing states . International Security , 29 ( 2 ) : 85 – 120 .
  • Kraxberger , B. 2007 . Failed states: temporary obstacles to democratic diffusion or fundamental holes in the world political map? . Third World Quarterly , 28 ( 6 ) : 1055 – 1071 .
  • Kuperman , A. 2008 . The moral hazard of humanitarian intervention: lessons from the Balkans . International Studies Quarterly , 52 ( 1 ) : 49 – 80 .
  • Laitin , D. and Samatar , S. 1987 . Somalia: nation in search of a state , Boulder, CO : Westview .
  • Lewis , I. 1981 . Acute crisis in Somalia . RAIN , 43 : 10 – 13 .
  • Lewis , I. 2002 . A modern history of the Somali , Athens, OH : Ohio University Press .
  • Little , P. , 1996 . Conflictive trade, contested identity: the effects of export markets on pastoralists of Southern Somalia . African Studies Review , 39 (1), 25–53 .
  • Loader , I. and Walker , N. 2007 . Civilizing security , New York : Cambridge University Press .
  • Luttwak , E. 1999 . Give war a chance . Foreign Affairs , 78 ( 4 ) : 36 – 44 .
  • Machiavelli , N. 1961 . The prince , New York : Penguin .
  • Mann , M. 1986 . The sources of social power, Volume 1: A history of power from the beginning to A.D. 1760 , New York : Cambridge University Press .
  • Marten Zisk , K. 2004 . Enforcing the peace , New York : Columbia University Press .
  • Mendelsohn , B. 2009 . Bolstering the state: a different perspective on the war on the Jihadi movement . International Studies Review , 11 ( 4 ) : 663 – 686 .
  • Menkhaus , K. 2010 . State fragility as a wicked problem . Prism , 1 ( 2 ) : 85 – 100 .
  • Migdal , J. 1988 . Weak states and strong societies , Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press .
  • Mueller , J. 2004 . The remnants of war , Ithaca, NY : Cornell University Press .
  • Kaldor , M. 2007 . New and old wars: organizing violence in a global era , 2nd ed , Stanford, CA Stanford University Press .
  • Nagl , J. , 2007 . Foreword to the University of Chicago Press edition . In : U.S. Army & Marine Corps Counterinsurgency Field Manual . Chicago : University of Chicago Press .
  • Nawaz , S. 2008 . Crossed swords: Pakistan, the army, and the war within , New York : Oxford University Press .
  • New York Times , 2009 . Negotiations break down in stand off with pirates . New York Times , 11 April .
  • O'Day , P. 2001 . The Mexican army as cartel . Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice , 17 ( 3 ) : 278 – 295 .
  • Ododa , H. 1985 . Somalia's domestic politics and foreign relations since the Ogaden War of 1977–78 . Middle Eastern Studies , 21 ( 3 ) : 285 – 297 .
  • Olson , M. 1993 . Democracy, dictatorship, and development . American Political Science Review , 87 ( 3 ) : 567 – 576 .
  • Prunier , G. 1991 . A candid view of the Somali national movement . Horn of Africa , 14 ( 1–2 ) : 107 – 120 .
  • Rashid , A. , 2010 . A deal with the Taliban? New York Review of Books , 57 , 25 February
  • Rauchhaus , R. 2010 . Principal–agent problems in humanitarian intervention: moral hazards, adverse selection, and the commitment dilemma . International Studies Quarterly , 53 ( 4 ) : 871 – 884 .
  • Robinson , D. 2001 . Bandits, eunuchs, and the son of heaven: rebellion and the economy of violence in mid-Ming China , Honolulu : University of Hawaii Press .
  • Rotberg , R. 2002 . The new nature of nation-state failure . Washington Quarterly , 25 ( 3 ) : 85 – 96 .
  • Rubin , A. , 2008 . Clash in Iraq over a plan for councils intensifies . New York Times , 4 December .
  • Rubin , A. and Farrell , S. , 2007 . Awakening councils by region . New York Times , 22 December
  • Sadiqi , Y. , 2008 . 25 Elf min Rijal-ha Yandhmoon Ila Quwat al-‘Amn . Al-Hayat , 6 August .
  • Samatar , A. 1988 . Socialist Somalia: rhetoric and reality , Atlantic Heights, NJ : Zed Books .
  • Scheye , E. and Peake , G. 2005 . To arrest insecurity: time for a revised security sector reform agenda . Conflict, Security and Development , 5 ( 3 ) : 295 – 327 .
  • Schneider , J. and Schneider , P. 2008 . The anthropology of crime and criminalization . Annual Review of Anthropology , 37 : 351 – 373 .
  • Scott , J. 1998 . Seeing like a state: how certain schemes to improve the human condition have failed , New Haven, CT : Yale University Press .
  • Scott , J. 2009 . The art of not being governed: an anarchist history of upland Southeast Asia , New Haven, CT : Yale University Press .
  • Sluglett , P. 2007 . Britain in Iraq: contriving king and country , New York : Columbia University Press .
  • Smith , C. 2001 . Security-sector reform: development breakthrough or institutional engineering. Conflict, Security . and Development , 1 ( 1 ) : 5 – 20 .
  • Smith , R. 2005 . The utility of force: the art of war in the modern world , New York : Penguin .
  • Sorensen , G. 2001 . War and state-making: why doesn't it work in the third world? . Security Dialogue , 32 ( 2 ) : 341 – 354 .
  • Stanski , K. 2009 . ‘So these folks are so aggressive’: an Orientalist reading of ‘Afghan Warlords’ . Security Dialogue , 40 ( 1 ) : 73 – 94 .
  • Tareke , G. 2009 . The Ethiopian revolution: war in the Horn of Africa , New Haven, CT : Yale University Press .
  • Taylor , B. and Botea , R. 2008 . Tilly tally: war-making and state-making in the contemporary third world . International Studies Review , 10 ( 1 ) : 27 – 56 .
  • Thakur , R. 2006 . The United Nations, peace, and security , New York : Cambridge University Press .
  • The Economist , 2009 . Fixing a broken world . The Economist , 29 January .
  • The National Security Strategy of the United States , 2002 . Available from: http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/policy/national/nss-020920.pdf [Accessed 3 March 2009] .
  • Thomson , J. 1994 . Mercenaries, pirates, and sovereigns: state-building and extraterritorial violence in early modern Europe , Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press .
  • Tilly , C. 1985 . “ War making and state making as organized crime ” . In Bringing the state back in , Edited by: Evans , P. , Rueschemeyer , D. and Skocpol , T. New York : Cambridge University Press .
  • UN , 1999 . UN report on protection of civilians , 9/1999/957 .
  • U.S. Army & Marine Corps Counterinsurgency Field Manual , 2007 . Chicago : University of Chicago Press .
  • Van Creveld , M. 1999 . The rise and decline of the state , New York : Cambridge University Press .
  • Van Notten , M. 2005 . The law of the Somalis: a stable foundation for economic development in the Horn of Africa , Trenton, NJ : Red Sea Press .
  • Volkov , V. 2002 . Violent entrepreneurs: the use of force in the making of Russian capitalism , Ithaca, NY : Cornell University Press .
  • Weber , M. 1986 . “ Politics as vocation ” . In From Max Weber: essays in sociology , Edited by: Gerth , H.H. and Wright Mills , C. New York : Oxford University Press .
  • Weiner , S. , 2008 . Maliki makes a play for the southern tribes . Institute for the Study of War Backgrounder No. 37, 6 November .
  • Werner , S. and Yuen , A. 2005 . Making and keeping peace . International Organization , 59 : 261 – 292 .
  • Zürcher , C. 2007 . The post-Soviet wars: rebellion, ethnic conflict, and nationhood in the Caucasus , New York : New York University Press .

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.