A Theory of Challenge and Threat States in Athletes

References

• Adie , J.W. , Duda , J.L. and Ntoumanis , N. 2008 . Achievement goals, competition appraisals, and the psychological and emotional welfare of sport participants . Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology , 30 : 302 – 322 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ames , C. and Archer , J. 1988 . Achievement goals in the classroom: Student learning strategies and motivational processes . Journal of Educational Psychology , 80 : 260 – 267 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Averill , J.R. 1973 . Personal control over aversive stimuli and its relationship to stress . Psychological Bulletin , 80 : 286 – 303 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bandura , A. 1986 . Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs , NJ : Prentice Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Bandura , A. 1997 . Self-efficacy: The exercise of control , New York : Freeman .
   Google Scholar
• Barwood , M.J. , Dalzell , J. , Datta , A.K. , Thelwell , R.C. and Tipton , M.J. 2006 . Breath-hold performance during cold water immersion: Effects of psychological skills training . Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine , 77 : 1136 – 1142 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Barwood , M.J. , Thelwell , R.C. and Tipton , M.J. 2008 . Psychological skills training improves exercise performance in the heat . Medicine & Science in Sport & Exercise , 40 : 387 – 396 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baumeister , R.F. and Heatherton , T.F. 1996 . Self-regulation failure: An overview . Psychological Inquiry , 7 : 1 – 15 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baumeister , R.F. , Heatherton , T.F. and Tice , D.M. 1994 . Losing control: How and why people fail at self-regulation , San Diego, CA : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Blanchard , R.J. , Flannelly , K.J. and Blanchard , D.C. 1986 . Defensive behavior of laboratory and wild Rattusnorvegicus . Journal of Comparative Psychology , 100 : 101 – 107 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blascovich , J. and Mendes , W.B. 2000 . “ Challenge and threat appraisals: The role of affective cues ” . In Feeling and thinking: The role of affect in social cognition , Edited by: Forgas , J. P. 59 – 82 . Paris : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Blascovich , J. , Mendes , W.B. , Hunter , S.B. , Lickel , B. and Kowai-Bell , N. 2001 . Perceiver threat in social interactions with stigmatized others . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 80 : 253 – 267 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blascovich , J. , Mendes , W.B. , Hunter , S.B. and Salomon , K. 1999 . Social ‘facilitation’ as challenge and threat . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 77 : 68 – 77 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blascovich , J. , Mendes , W.B. , Tomaka , J. , Salomon , K. and Seery , M. 2003 . The robust nature of the biopsychosocial model challenge and threat: A reply to Wright and Kirby . Personality and Social Psychology Review , 7 : 234 – 243 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blascovich , J. , Seery , M.D. , Mugridge , C.A. , Norris , R.K. and Weisbuch , M. 2004 . Predicting athletic performance from cardiovascular indexes of challenge and threat . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 40 : 683 – 688 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blascovich , J. and Tomaka , J. 1996 . The biopsychosocial model of arousal regulation . Advances in Experimental Social Psychology , 28 : 1 – 51 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bray , S.R. , Martin Ginis , K.A. , Hicks , A.L. and Woodgate , J. 2008 . Effects of self-regulatory strength depletion on muscular performance and EMG activation . Psychophysiology , 45 : 337 – 343 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cerin , E. 2003 . Anxiety versus fundamental emotions as predictors of perceived functionality of pre-competitive emotional states, threat, and challenge in individual sports . Journal of Applied Sport Psychology , 15 : 223 – 238 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dienstbier , R.A. 1989 . Arousal and physiological toughness: Implications for mental and physical health . Psychological Review , 96 : 84 – 100 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dweck , C.S. 1986 . Motivational processes affecting learning . American Psychologist , 41 : 1040 – 1048 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elliot , A.J. and Church , M.A. 1997 . A hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 72 : 218 – 232 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elliot , A.J. , Cury , F. , Fryer , J.W. and Huguet , P. 2006 . Achievement goals, self handicapping, and performance attainment: A mediational analysis . Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology , 28 : 344 – 361 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elliot , A.J. and Harackiewicz , J.M. 1996 . Approach and avoidance achievement goals and intrinsic motivation: A mediational analysis . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 70 : 461 – 475 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elliot , A.J. and McGregor , H.A. 2001 . A 2×2 achievement goal framework . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 80 : 501 – 519 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eysenck , M.W. and Calvo , M.G. 1992 . Anxiety and performance: The processing efficiency theory . Cognition and Emotion , 6 : 409 – 434 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eysenck , M.W. , Derakshan , N. , Santos , R. and Calvo , M.G. 2007 . Anxiety and cognitive performance: Attentional control theory . Emotion , 7 : 336 – 353 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanin , Y.L. 2000 . “ Successful and poor performance and emotions ” . In Emotions in sport , Edited by: Hanin , Y. L. 157 – 187 . Champaign, IL : Human Kinetics .
   Google Scholar
• Hanton , S. and Connaughton , D. 2002 . Perceived control of anxiety and its relationship to self-confidence and performance . Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport , 73 : 87 – 97 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanton , S. , Mellalieu , S.D. and Hall , R. 2004 . Self-confidence and anxiety interpretation: A qualitative investigation . Psychology of Sport and Exercise , 5 : 477 – 495 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanton , S. , Neil , R. and Mellalieu , S.D. 2008 . Recent developments in competitive anxiety direction and competition stress . International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology , 1 : 45 – 57 .
   Google Scholar
• Hardy , L. 1996 . Testing the predictions of the cusp catastrophe model of anxiety and performance . The Sport Psychologist , 10 : 140 – 156 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janelle , C.M. 2002 . Anxiety, arousal and visual attention: A mechanistic account of performance variability . Journal of Sports Sciences , 20 : 237 – 251 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones , G. 1995 . More than just a game: Research developments and issues in competitive anxiety in sport . British Journal of Psychology , 86 : 449 – 478 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones , G. and Hanton , S. 2001 . Pre-competitive feeling states and directional anxiety interpretations . Journal of Sports Sciences , 19 : 385 – 395 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones , G. and Swain , A. 1995 . Predispositions to experience debilitative and facilitative anxiety in elite and nonelite performers . The Sport Psychologist , 9 : 201 – 211 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones , G. , Swain , A. and Hardy , L. 1993 . Intensity and direction dimensions of competitive state anxiety and relationships with performance . Journal of Sports Sciences , 11 : 525 – 532 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones , M.V. and Uphill , M. 2004 . Responses to the competitive state anxiety inventory-2 (d) by athletes in anxious and excited scenarios . Psychology of Sport & Exercise , 5 : 201 – 212 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lane , A.M. and Terry , P.C. 2000 . The nature of mood: Development of a conceptual model with a focus on depression . Journal of Applied Sport Psychology , 12 : 16 – 33 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazarus , R.S. 1991 . Emotion and adaptation , New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Lazarus , R.S. 1999 . Stress and emotion: A new synthesis , New York : Springer .
   Google Scholar
• Lazarus , R.S. 2000 . How emotions influence performance in competitive sports . The Sport Psychologist , 14 : 229 – 252 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maddux , J.E. 1995 . “ Self-efficacy theory: An introduction ” . In Self-efficacy, adaptation, and adjustment: Theory, research, and application , Edited by: Maddux , J.E. 3 – 33 . New York : Plenum Press .
   Google Scholar
• Masters , R. and Maxwell , J. 2008 . The theory of reinvestment . International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology , 1 : 160 – 183 .
   Google Scholar
• McGregor , H.A. and Elliot , A.J. 2002 . Achievement goals as predictors of achievement-relevant processes prior to task engagement . Journal of Educational Psychology , 94 : 381 – 395 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McMorris , T. , Myers , S. , MacGillivary , W.W. , Sexsmith , J.R. , Fallowfield , J. , Graydon , J. and Forster , D. 1999 . Exercise, plasma catecholamine concentrations and decision-making performance of soccer players on a soccer-specific test . Journal of Sports Sciences , 17 : 667 – 676 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mellalieu , S.D. , Hanton , S. and Jones , G. 2003 . Emotional labeling and competitive anxiety in preparation and competition . The Sport Psychologist , 17 : 157 – 174 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mellalieu , S.D. , Neil , R. and Hanton , S. 2006 . Self-confidence as a mediator of the relationship between competitive anxiety intensity and interpretation . Research Quarterly for Sport and Exercise , 77 : 263 – 270 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mendes , W.B. , Blascovich , J. , Hunter , S.B. , Lickel , B. and Jost , J.T. 2007 . Threatened by the unexpected: Physiological responses during social interactions with expectancy-violating partners . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 92 : 698 – 716 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mendes , W.B. , Blascovich , J. , Major , B. and Seery , M. 2001 . Challenge and threat responses during downward and upward social comparisons . European Journal of Social Psychology , 31 : 477 – 497 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mendes , W.B. , Reis , H.T. , Seery , M.D. and Blascovich , J. 2003 . Cardiovascular correlates of emotional expression and suppression: Do content and gender matter? . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 84 : 771 – 792 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mendes , W.B. , Major , B. , McCoy , S. and Blascovich , J. 2008 . How attributional ambiguity shapes physiological and emotional responses to social rejection and acceptance . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 94 : 278 – 291 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moran , A.P. 1996 . The psychology of concentration in sport performers: A cognitive analysis , London : Taylor & Francis .
   Google Scholar
• Moran , A. , Byrne , A. and McGlade , N. 2002 . The effects of anxiety and strategic planning on visual search behaviour . Journal of Sports Sciences , 20 : 225 – 236 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mullen , R. and Hardy , L. 2000 . State anxiety and motor performance: Testing the conscious processing hypothesis . Journal of Sports Sciences , 18 : 785 – 799 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ntoumanis , N. and Biddle , S.J.H. 1998 . The relationship of coping and its perceived effectiveness to positive and negative affect in sport . Personality and Individual Differences , 24 : 773 – 788 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Obrist , P.A. 1981 . Cardiovascular psychophysiology , New York : Plenum Press .
   Google Scholar
• Roberts , G.C. , Treasure , D.C. and Conroy , D.E. 2007 . “ Understanding the dynamics of motivation in sport and physical activity: An achievement goal interpretation ” . In Handbook of sport psychology , 3rd ed , Edited by: Tenenbaum , G. and Eklund , R. 3 – 30 . Hoboken, NJ : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Scheepers , D. and Ellemers , N. 2005 . When the pressure is up: The assessment of social identity threat in low and high status groups . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 41 : 192 – 200 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schunk , D.H. 1995 . “ Self-efficacy and education and instruction ” . In Self-efficacy, adaptation, and adjustment: Theory, research, and application , Edited by: Maddux , J. E. 281 – 303 . New York : Plenum Press .
   Google Scholar
• Skinner , E.A. 1996 . A guide to constructs of control . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 71 : 549 – 570 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skinner , N. and Brewer , N. 2002 . The dynamics of threat and challenge appraisals prior to stressful achievement events . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 83 : 678 – 692 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skinner , N. and Brewer , N. 2004 . Adaptive approaches to competition: Challenge appraisals and positive emotion . Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology , 26 : 283 – 305 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stern , R.M. , Ray , W.J. and Quigley , K.S. 2001 . Psychophysiological recording , 2nd edn , Oxford, , England : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Tomaka , J. , Blascovich , J. , Kibler , J. and Ernst , J.M. 1997 . Cognitive and physiological antecedents of threat and challenge appraisal . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 73 : 63 – 72 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Treasure , D.C. , Monson , J. and Lox , C.L. 1996 . Relationship between self-efficacy, wrestling performance, and affect prior to competition . The Sport Psychologist , 10 : 73 – 83 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uphill , M.A. and Jones , M.V. 2007 . Antecedents of emotions in elite athletes: A cognitive motivational relational theory perspective . Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport , 78 : 79 – 89 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uphill , M.A. , McCarthy , P.J. and Jones , M.V. 2008 . “ Getting a grip on emotion regulation in sport: Conceptual foundations and practical applications ” . In Advances in Applied Sport Psychology: A Review , Edited by: Mellalieu , S. and Hanton , S. 162 – 194 . Abingdon, , UK : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Wilson , M. 2008 . From processing efficiency to attentional control: a mechanistic account of the anxiety-performance relationship . International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology , 1 : 184 – 201 .
   Google Scholar
• Wright , R.A. and Kirby , L.D. 2003 . Cardiovascular correlates of challenge and threat appraisals: A critical examination of the biopsychosocial analysis . Personality and Social Psychology Review , 7 : 216 – 233 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar