Opioid epidemic: lessons learned and updated recommendations for misuse involving prescription versus non-prescription opioids

References

• United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). Understanding the global opioid crisis. Global SMART Update 2019.
   Google Scholar
• Kelly JP, Cook SF, Kaufman DW, et al. Prevalence and characteristics of opioid use in the US adult population. Pain. 2008 Sep 15;138(3):507–513.
   Google Scholar
• Bedene A, Lijfering WM, Niesters M, et al. Opioid prescription patterns and risk factors associated with opioid use in the Netherlands. JAMA Network Open. 2019 Aug 2;2(8):e1910223.
   Google Scholar
• Muller AE, Clausen T, Sjogren P, et al. Prescribed opioid analgesic use developments in three Nordic countries, 2006-2017. Scand J Pain. 2019 Apr 24;19(2):345–353.
   Google Scholar
• Government of the United Kingdom. United Kingdom drug situation 2019: focal point annual report. 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Hauser W, Buchser E, Finn DP, et al. Is Europe also facing an opioid crisis? A survey of European Pain Federation chapters. Eur J Pain. 2021 Sep;25(8):1760–1769.
   Google Scholar
• Chen T-C, Knaggs RD, Chen L-C. Association between opioid-related deaths and prescribed opioid dose and psychotropic medicines in England: a case-crossover study. Br J Anaesth. 2021 Nov;127(5):789–797.
   Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Vital signs: overdoses of prescription opioid pain relievers-United States, 1999-2008. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2011 Nov 4;60(43):1487–1492.
   Google Scholar
• Rudd RA, Paulozzi LJ, Bauer MJ, et al. Increases in heroin overdose deaths – 28 States, 2010 to 2012. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2014 Oct 3;63(39):849–854.
   Google Scholar
• Gladden RM, Martinez P, Seth P. Fentanyl law enforcement submissions and increases in synthetic opioid-involved overdose deaths – 27 states, 2013–2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2016 Aug 26;65(33):837–843.
   Google Scholar
• O’Donnell JK, Gladden RM, Seth P. Trends in deaths involving heroin and synthetic opioids excluding methadone, and law enforcement drug product reports, by census region – United States, 2006–2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2017 Sep 1;66(34):897–903.
   Google Scholar
• O’Donnell JK, Halpin J, Mattson CL, et al. Deaths involving fentanyl, fentanyl analogs, and U-47700-10 states, July–December 2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2017 Nov 3;66(43):1197–1202.
   Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Data from: overdose death rates involving opioids, by type, United States, 1999-2020 (Deaths per 100,000 people) [dataset]. 2022 [updated 2022 May 22; [cited 2022 July 18]. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/data/OD-death-data.html
   Google Scholar
• O’Donnell J, Gladden RM, Mattson CL, et al. Vital signs: characteristics of drug overdose deaths involving opioids and stimulants – 24 states and the district of Columbia, January–June 2019. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2020 Sep 4;69(35):1189–1197.
   Google Scholar
• Jenkins RA. The fourth wave of the US opioid epidemic and its implications for the rural US: a federal perspective. Prev Med. 2021;152:106541.
   Google Scholar
• Ciccarone D. The rise of illicit fentanyls, stimulants and the fourth wave of the opioid overdose crisis. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2021 Jul 1;34(4):344–350.
   Google Scholar
• Volkow ND, Jones EB, Einstein EB, et al. Prevention and treatment of opioid misuse and addiction: a review. JAMA Psychiatry. 2019;76(2):208–216.
   Google Scholar
• Jones MR, Viswanath O, Peck J, et al. A brief history of the opioid epidemic and strategies for pain medicine. Pain Ther. 2018 Jun;7(1):13–21.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization (WHO). The selection of essential drugs: a report of a WHO Expert Committee. World Health Organization Technical Report Series 1977. p. 1–36.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization (WHO). Cancer pain relief and palliative care: report of a WHO expert committee. In: Expert committee on cancer pain relief and active supportive care, editor. Geneva: World Health Organization Technical Report Series; 1990. p. 1–76.
   Google Scholar
• Andrew R, Derry S, Taylor RS, et al. The costs and consequences of adequately managed chronic non-cancer pain and chronic neuropathic pain. Pain Pract. 2014 Jan;14(1):79–94.
   Google Scholar
• Lamé IE, Peters ML, Vlaeyen JWS, et al. Quality of life in chronic pain is more associated with beliefs about pain, than with pain intensity. Eur J Pain. 2005;9(1):15–23.
   Google Scholar
• Ang J-Y, Leong EL, Chan H-K, et al. Health-related quality of life of Malaysian patients with chronic non-malignant pain and its associated factors: a cross-sectional study. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2022;23(1):400.
   Google Scholar
• Morley S, Eccleston C, Williams A. Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials of cognitive behaviour therapy and behaviour therapy for chronic pain in adults, excluding headache. Pain. 1999;80(1):1–13.
   Google Scholar
• Porter J, Jick H. Addiction rare in patients treated with narcotics. N Engl J Med. 1980 Jan 10;302(2):123.
   Google Scholar
• Leung PTM, Macdonald EM, Stanbrook MB, et al. A 1980 letter on the risk of opioid addiction. N Engl J Med. 2017 Jun 1;376(22):2194–2195.
   Google Scholar
• Campbell JN. APS 1995 Presidential address. Pain Forum. 1996;5(1):85–88.
   Google Scholar
• Max MB, Donovan M, Miaskowski CA, et al. Quality improvement guidelines for the treatment of acute pain and cancer pain. JAMA. 1995;274(23):1874–1880.
   Google Scholar
• Sullivan MD, Ballantyne JC. Must we reduce pain intensity to treat chronic pain? Pain. 2016 Jan;157(1):65–69.
   Google Scholar
• Phillips DM, Phillips DM. JCAHO Pain Management. Standards are unveiled. JAMA. 2000;284(4):428–429.
   Google Scholar
• Rathmell JP, Wu CL, Sinatra RS, et al. Acute post-surgical pain management: a critical appraisal of current practice, December 2–4, 2005. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2006 Jul-Aug 31;31(4 Suppl 1):1–42.
   Google Scholar
• Dowell D, Haegerich TM, Chou R. CDC guideline for prescribing opioids for chronic pain – United States, 2016. JAMA. 2016 Apr 19;315(15):1624–1645.
   Google Scholar
• National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). Chronic pain (primary and secondary) in over 16s: assessment of all chronic pain and management of chronic primary pain, NICE guideline [NG193]. 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Gourd E. American Pain Society forced to close due to opioid scandal. Lancet Oncol. 2019 Jul;20(7):e350.
   Google Scholar
• Ornstein C, Weber T. American Pain Foundation shuts down as senators launch investigation of prescription narcotics 2012 [cited 2022 Mar 10]. Available from: https://www.propublica.org/article/senate-panel-investigates-drug-company-ties-to-pain-groups
   Google Scholar
• Clark C. American Pain Society seeks ok to call it quits. MedPage Today. 2019 [cited 2022 March 10]. Available from: https://www.medpagetoday.com/painmanagement/painmanagement/80054
   Google Scholar
• Van Zee A. The promotion and marketing of oxycontin: commercial triumph, public health tragedy. Am J Public Health. 2009 Feb;99(2):221–227.
   Google Scholar
• Rischitelli DG, Karbowicz SH. Safety and efficacy of controlled-release oxycodone: a systematic literature review. Pharmacotherapy. 2002 Jul;22(7):898–904.
   Google Scholar
• Dhalla IA, Mamdani MM, Sivilotti MLA, et al. Prescribing of opioid analgesics and related mortality before and after the introduction of long-acting oxycodone. Can Med Assoc J. 2009;181(12):891–896.
   Google Scholar
• Berge KH, Dillon KR, Sikkink KM, et al. Diversion of drugs within health care facilities, a multiple-victim crime: patterns of diversion, scope, consequences, detection, and prevention. Mayo Clin Proc. 2012;87(7):674–682.
   Google Scholar
• National Academies of Sciences Engineering Medicine Health; Medicine Division; Board on Health Sciences; Policy Committee on Pain Management; Regulatory Strategies to Address Prescription Opioid Abuse. Evidence on strategies for addressing the opioid epidemic: regulating/restricting conditions of lawful access to approved drugs. In: Phillips JK, Ford MA, Bonnie RJ, editors. Pain management and the opioid epidemic: balancing societal and individual benefits and risks of prescription opioid use. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2017.
   Google Scholar
• Sansone RA, Sansone LA. Doctor shopping: a phenomenon of many themes. Innov Clin Neurosci. 2012 Nov;9(11–12):42–46.
   Google Scholar
• Kennedy-Hendricks A, Richey M, McGinty EE, et al. Opioid overdose deaths and Florida’s crackdown on pill mills. Am J Public Health. 2016 Feb;106(2):291–297.
   Google Scholar
• Kennedy-Hendricks A, Gielen A, McDonald E, et al. Medication sharing, storage, and disposal practices for opioid medications among US adults. JAMA Intern Med. 2016;176(7):1027–1029.
   Google Scholar
• Cicero TJ, Ellis MS. The prescription opioid epidemic: a review of qualitative studies on the progression from initial use to abuse. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2017 Sep;19(3):259–269.
   Google Scholar
• Cicero TJ, Ellis MS, Surratt HL, et al., The changing face of heroin use in the United States: a retrospective analysis of the past 50 years. JAMA Psychiatry. 2014;71(7):821–826.
   Google Scholar
• Cicero TJ, Ellis MS, Kasper ZA. Increased use of heroin as an initiating opioid of abuse. Addict Behav. 2017 Nov;74:63–66.
   Google Scholar
• Wide-ranging ONline Data for Epidemiologic Research (WONDER). [Internet]. Atlanta (GA): CDC, National Center for Health Statistics. 2020 [cited 2022 Mar 10]. Available from: http://wonder.cdc.gov.
   Google Scholar
• Mattson CL, Tanz LJ, Quinn K, et al. Trends and geographic patterns in drug and synthetic opioid overdose deaths – United States, 2013–2019. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2021 Feb 12;70(6):202–207.
   Google Scholar
• Seth P, Scholl L, Rudd RA, et al. Overdose deaths involving opioids, cocaine, and psychostimulants – United States, 2015–2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2018 Mar 30;67(12):349–358.
   Google Scholar
• McCarthy M. US declares opioid epidemic a “national emergency.” BMJ. 2017 Aug;14(358):j3881.
   Google Scholar
• Kalkman GA, Kramers C, van Dongen RT, et al. Trends in use and misuse of opioids in the Netherlands: a retrospective, multi-source database study. Lancet Public Health. 2019 Oct;4(10):e498–e505.
   Google Scholar
• Li G, Chihuri S. Prescription opioids, alcohol and fatal motor vehicle crashes: a population-based case-control study. Inj Epidemiol. 2019;6(1):11.
   Google Scholar
• Soderberg KC, Laflamme L, Moller J. Newly initiated opioid treatment and the risk of fall-related injuries. A nationwide, register-based, case-crossover study in Sweden. CNS Drugs. 2013Feb;27(2):155–161.
   Google Scholar
• Vowles KE, McEntee ML, Julnes PS, et al. Rates of opioid misuse, abuse, and addiction in chronic pain: a systematic review and data synthesis. Pain. 2015 Apr;156(4):569–576.
   Google Scholar
• Mercadante S, Arcuri E, Santoni A. Opioid-Induced Tolerance and Hyperalgesia. CNS Drugs. 2019 Oct;33(10):943–955.
   Google Scholar
• Rhee TG, Rosenheck RA. Association of current and past opioid use disorders with health-related quality of life and employment among US adults. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2019 Jun;1(199):122–128.
   Google Scholar
• Goplerud E, Hodge S, Benham T . A substance use Cost calculator for US employers with an emphasis on prescription pain medication misuse. J Occup Environ Med. 2017 Nov;59(11):1063–1071.
   Google Scholar
• Florence C, Luo F, Rice K. The economic burden of opioid use disorder and fatal opioid overdose in the United States, 2017. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2021 Jan 1;218:108350.
   Google Scholar
• Edlund MJ, Martin BC, Russo JE, et al. The role of opioid prescription in incident opioid abuse and dependence among individuals with chronic noncancer pain: the role of opioid prescription. Clin J Pain. 2014 Jul;30(7):557–564.
   Google Scholar
• Fenalti G, Zatsepin NA, Betti C, et al. Structural basis for bifunctional peptide recognition at human δ-opioid receptor. Nat Struct Mol Biol. 2015;22(3):265–268.
   Google Scholar
• Koehl A, Hu H, Maeda S, et al. Structure of the µ-opioid receptor-G(i) protein complex. Nature. 2018 Jun;558(7711):547–552.
   Google Scholar
• Stein C. Opioid receptors. Annu Rev Med. 2016;67(1):433–451.
   Google Scholar
• Eddy NB, Halbach H, Braenden OJ. Synthetic substances with morphine-like effect: relationship between analgesic action and addiction liability with a discussion of the chemical structure of addiction-producing substances. Bull World Health Organ. 1956;14(3):353–402.
   Google Scholar
• Lötsch J. Opioid metabolites. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2005;29(5,Supplement):10–24.
   Google Scholar
• Pathan H, Williams J. Basic opioid pharmacology: an update. Br J Pain. 2012 Feb;6(1):11–16.
   Google Scholar
• Flood P, Rathmell JP, Schafer S, et al. Stoelting’s pharmacology and physiology in anesthetic practice. 5th. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health; 2015.
   Google Scholar
• Drewes AM, Jensen RD, Nielsen LM, et al. Differences between opioids: pharmacological, experimental, clinical and economical perspectives. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2013 Jan;75(1):60–78.
   Google Scholar
• Smith HS. Opioid metabolism. Mayo Clin Proc. 2009;84(7):613–624.
   Google Scholar
• Rang HP, Dale MM, Ritter J, et al. Rang and Dale’s pharmacology. 7th ed. Edinburgh [etc.]: Elsevier/Churchill Livingston; 2012.
   Google Scholar
• Harrison C, Smart D, Lambert DG. Stimulatory effects of opioids. Br J Anaesth. 1998 Jul;81(1):20–28.
   Google Scholar
• Williams JT, Christie MJ, Cellular MO. Synaptic adaptations mediating opioid dependence. Physiol Rev. 2001;81(1):299–343.
   Google Scholar
• Waldhoer M, Bartlett SE, Whistler JL. Opioid receptors. Annu Rev Biochem. 2004;73(1):953–990.
   Google Scholar
• Williams JT, Ingram SL, Henderson G, et al. Regulation of μ-opioid receptors: desensitization, phosphorylation, internalization, and tolerance. Pharmacol Rev. 2013 Jan;65(1):223–254.
   Google Scholar
• Matthes HW, Maldonado R, Simonin F, et al. Loss of morphine-induced analgesia, reward effect and withdrawal symptoms in mice lacking the mu-opioid-receptor gene. Nature. 1996 Oct 31;383(6603):819–823.
   Google Scholar
• Allouche S, Noble F, Marie N. Opioid receptor desensitization: mechanisms and its link to tolerance. Front Pharmacol. 2014;5:280.
   Google Scholar
• Christie MJ. Cellular neuroadaptations to chronic opioids: tolerance, withdrawal and addiction. Br J Pharmacol. 2008 May;154(2):384–396.
   Google Scholar
• Sharma SK, Nirenberg M, Klee WA. Morphine receptors as regulators of adenylate cyclase activity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1975 Feb;72(2):590–594.
   Google Scholar
• Nestler EJ, Aghajanian GK. Molecular and cellular basis of addiction. Science. 1997 Oct 3;278(5335):58–63.
   Google Scholar
• Everitt BJ, Robbins TW. Neural systems of reinforcement for drug addiction: from actions to habits to compulsion. Nat Neurosci. 2005 Nov;8(11):1481–1489.
   Google Scholar
• Hyman SE. Addiction: a disease of learning and memory. Am J Psychiatry. 2005 Aug;162(8):1414–1422.
   Google Scholar
• Di Chiara G, Imperato A. Drugs abused by humans preferentially increase synaptic dopamine concentrations in the mesolimbic system of freely moving rats. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1988 Jul;85(14):5274–5278.
   Google Scholar
• Di Chiara G. A motivational learning hypothesis of the role of mesolimbic dopamine in compulsive drug use. J Psychopharmacol. 1998;12(1):54–67.
   Google Scholar
• Koob GF, Le Moal M, Addiction D. Dysregulation of reward, and allostasis. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2001;24(2):97–129.
   Google Scholar
• Goldstein RZ, Volkow ND. Drug addiction and its underlying neurobiological basis: neuroimaging evidence for the involvement of the frontal cortex. Am J Psychiatry. 2002;159(10):1642–1652.
   Google Scholar
• Volkow ND, Fowler JS, Wang GJ, et al., Dopamine in drug abuse and addiction: results from imaging studies and treatment implications. Mol Psychiatry. 2004;9(6): 557–569.
   Google Scholar
• Ballantyne JC, Mao J. Opioid therapy for chronic pain. N Engl J Med. 2003 Nov 13;349(20):1943–1953.
   Google Scholar
• Cushman P, Dole VP. Detoxification of rehabilitated methadone-maintained patients. JAMA. 1973 Nov 12;226(7):747–752.
   Google Scholar
• Pergolizzi JV, Raffa RB, Rosenblatt MH. Opioid withdrawal symptoms, a consequence of chronic opioid use and opioid use disorder: current understanding and approaches to management. J Clin Pharm Ther. 2020;45(5):892–903.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization (WHO). Clinical guidelines for withdrawal management and treatment of drug dependence in closed settings. Vol. 4. Geneva: Wihtdrawal Management; 2009.
   Google Scholar
• Algera MH, Olofsen E, Moss L, et al. Tolerance to opioid-induced respiratory depression in chronic high-dose opioid users: a model-based comparison with opioid-naïve individuals. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2021 Mar;109(3):637–645.
   Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 5th ed.; 2013. d o i:https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596.
   Google Scholar
• Ballantyne JC, Sullivan MD, Kolodny A. Opioid dependence vs addiction: a distinction without a difference? Arch Intern Med. 2012;172(17):1342–1343.
   Google Scholar
• O’Brien CP, Childress AR, Ehrman R, et al. Conditioning factors in drug abuse: can they explain compulsion? J Psychopharmacol. 1998;12(1):15–22.
   Google Scholar
• Jage J. Opioid tolerance and dependence – do they matter? Eur J Pain. 2005 Apr;9(2):157–162.
   Google Scholar
• McQuay H. Opioids in pain management. Lancet. 1999 Jun 26;353(9171):2229–2232.
   Google Scholar
• Loren AW. Harder to treat than leukemia – opioid use disorder in survivors of cancer. N Engl J Med. 2018 Dec 27;379(26):2485–2487.
   Google Scholar
• Preux C, Bertin M, Tarot A, et al. Prevalence of opioid use disorder among patients with cancer-related pain: a systematic review. J Clin Med. 2022 Mar 14;11(6):6.
   Google Scholar
• Barrett ME, Joe GW, Simpson DD. Availability of drugs and psychological proneness in opioid addiction. Int J Addict. 1990;25(10):1211–1226.
   Google Scholar
• National Institute on Drug Abuse. Increased drug availability is associated with increased use and overdose. National Institute on Drug Abuse website. 2022 [cited 2022 Feb 23]. Available from: https://nida.nih.gov/publications/research-reports/prescription-opioids-heroin/increased-drug-availability-associated-increased-use-overdose
   Google Scholar
• Edlund MJ, Sullivan M, Steffick D, et al. Do users of regularly prescribed opioids have higher rates of substance use problems than nonusers? Pain Med. 2007;8(8):647–656.
   Google Scholar
• Groenewald CB, Rabbitts JA, Gebert JT, et al. Trends in opioid prescriptions among children and adolescents in the United States: a nationally representative study from 1996 to 2012. Pain. 2016 May;157(5):1021–1027.
   Google Scholar
• Klimas J, Gorfinkel L, Fairbairn N, et al. Strategies to identify patient risks of prescription opioid addiction when initiating opioids for pain: a systematic review. JAMA Network Open. 2019;2(5):e193365–e193365.
   Google Scholar
• Gomes T, Mamdani MM, Dhalla IA, et al. Opioid dose and drug-related mortality in patients with nonmalignant pain. Arch Intern Med. 2011;171(7):686–691.
   Google Scholar
• Krebs EE, Gravely A, Nugent S, et al. Effect of opioid vs nonopioid medications on pain-related function in patients with chronic back pain or hip or knee osteoarthritis pain: the space randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2018 Mar 6;319(9):872–882.
   Google Scholar
• Stanos S. Evolution of opioid risk management and review of the classwide REMS for extended-release/long-acting opioids. Phys Sportsmed. 2012 Nov;40(4):12–20.
   Google Scholar
• Pergolizzi JVsJr, Gharibo C, Passik S, et al. Dynamic risk factors in the misuse of opioid analgesics. J Psychosom Res. 2012;72(6):443–451.
   Google Scholar
• Stumbo SP, Yarborough BJH, McCarty D, et al. Patient-reported pathways to opioid use disorders and pain-related barriers to treatment engagement. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2017;73:47–54.
   Google Scholar
• Webster LR. Risk factors for opioid-use disorder and overdose. Anesth Analg. 2017 Nov;125(5):1741–1748.
   Google Scholar
• Voon P, Karamouzian M, Kerr T. Chronic pain and opioid misuse: a review of reviews. Subst Abuse Treat Prev Policy. 2017 Aug 15;12(1):36.
   Google Scholar
• Campbell CI, Weisner C, LeResche L, et al. Age and gender trends in long-term opioid analgesic use for noncancer pain. Am J Public Health. 2010;100(12):2541–2547.
   Google Scholar
• Bagley SM, Gai MJ, Earlywine JJ, et al. Incidence and characteristics of nonfatal opioid overdose among youths aged 11 to 24 years by sex. JAMA Network Open. 2020;3(12):e2030201–e2030201.
   Google Scholar
• Sullivan MD, Edlund MJ, Fan M-Y, et al. Risks for possible and probable opioid misuse among recipients of chronic opioid therapy in commercial and Medicaid insurance plans: the TROUP study. Pain. 2010;150(2):332–339.
   Google Scholar
• Bedene A, Van Dorp ELA, Faquih T, et al. Causes and consequences of the opioid epidemic in the Netherlands: a population-based cohort study. Sci Rep. 2020 Sep 17;10(1):15309.
   Google Scholar
• Green TC, Grimes Serrano JM, Licari A, et al. Women who abuse prescription opioids: findings from the addiction severity index-multimedia version connect prescription opioid database. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2009 Jul 1;103(1–2):65–73.
   Google Scholar
• Wasan AD, Michna E, Edwards RR, et al. Psychiatric comorbidity is associated prospectively with diminished opioid analgesia and increased opioid misuse in patients with chronic low back pain. Anesthesiology. 2015;123(4):861–872.
   Google Scholar
• Sullivan MD. Depression effects on long-term prescription opioid use, abuse, and addiction. Clin J Pain. 2018;34(9):878–884.
   Google Scholar
• Rogers AH, Zvolensky MJ, Ditre JW, et al. Association of opioid misuse with anxiety and depression: a systematic review of the literature. Clin Psychol Rev. 2021;84:101978.
   Google Scholar
• Wilsey BL, Fishman SM, Tsodikov A, et al. Psychological comorbidities predicting prescription opioid abuse among patients in chronic pain presenting to the emergency department. Pain Med. 2008;9(8):1107–1117.
   Google Scholar
• Turk DC, Swanson KS, Gatchel RJ. Predicting opioid misuse by chronic pain patients: a systematic review and literature synthesis. Clin J Pain. 2008 Jul-Aug;24(6):497–508.
   Google Scholar
• Boscarino JA, Rukstalis M, Hoffman SN, et al. Risk factors for drug dependence among out-patients on opioid therapy in a large US health-care system. Addiction. 2010;105(10):1776–1782.
   Google Scholar
• Jones CM, Clayton HB, Deputy NP, et al. Prescription opioid misuse and use of alcohol and other substances among high school students – youth risk behavior survey, United States, 2019. MMWR Suppl. 2020 Aug 21;69(1):38–46.
   Google Scholar
• Thrul J, Rabinowitz JA, Reboussin BA, et al. Adolescent cannabis and tobacco use are associated with opioid use in young adulthood—12-year longitudinal study in an urban cohort. Addiction. 2021;116(3):643–650.
   Google Scholar
• Jones CM. Heroin use and heroin use risk behaviors among nonmedical users of prescription opioid pain relievers – United States, 2002–2004 and 2008–2010. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2013 Sep 1;132(1–2):95–100.
   Google Scholar
• Merikangas KR, Stolar M, Stevens DE, et al. Familial transmission of substance use disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1998;55(11):973–979.
   Google Scholar
• Madras BK, Han B, Compton WM, et al. Associations of parental marijuana use with offspring marijuana, tobacco, and alcohol use and opioid misuse. JAMA Network Open. 2019;2(11):e1916015–e1916015.
   Google Scholar
• Cheatle MD, Compton PA, Dhingra L, et al. Development of the revised opioid risk tool to predict opioid use disorder in patients with chronic nonmalignant pain. J Pain. 2019;20(7):842–851.
   Google Scholar
• Brown RT, Deyo B, Nicholas C, et al. Screening in Trauma for Opioid Misuse Prevention (STOMP): results from a prospective cohort of victims of traumatic injury. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2022;232:109286.
   Google Scholar
• Berrettini W. A brief review of the genetics and pharmacogenetics of opioid use disorders. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2017;19(3):229–236.
   Google Scholar
• Kors S, Kurdziel-Adams G, Towers C, et al. Sexual abuse as a risk factor for opioid misuse in pregnancy. J Child Sex Abuse. 2022;31(5):538–549.
   Google Scholar
• Austin AE, Shanahan ME, Zvara BJ. Association of childhood abuse and prescription opioid use in early adulthood. Addict Behav. 2018;76:265–269.
   Google Scholar
• Ranapurwala SI, Naumann RB, Austin AE, et al. Methodologic limitations of prescription opioid safety research and recommendations for improving the evidence base. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2019 Jan;28(1):4–12.
   Google Scholar
• Chou R, Turner JA, Devine EB, et al. The effectiveness and risks of long-term opioid therapy for chronic pain: a systematic review for a National Institutes of Health Pathways to Prevention Workshop. Ann Intern Med. 2015 Feb 17;162(4):276–286.
   Google Scholar
• Singh S, Loke YK. Drug safety assessment in clinical trials: methodological challenges and opportunities. Trials. 2012;13(1):138.
   Google Scholar
• Van Smeden M, Lash TL, Groenwold RHH. Reflection on modern methods: five myths about measurement error in epidemiological research. Int J Epidemiol. 2019;49(1):338–347.
   Google Scholar
• Schneeweiss S, Rassen JA, Glynn RJ, et al. High-dimensional propensity score adjustment in studies of treatment effects using health care claims data. Epidemiology. 2009 Jul;20(4):512–522.
   Google Scholar
• Petersen I, Douglas I, Whitaker H. Self controlled case series methods: an alternative to standard epidemiological study designs. BMJ. 2016;354:i4515.
   Google Scholar
• Schneeweiss S. Sensitivity analysis and external adjustment for unmeasured confounders in epidemiologic database studies of therapeutics. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2006;15(5):291–303.
   Google Scholar
• Lund JL, Richardson DB, Stürmer T. The active comparator, new user study design in pharmacoepidemiology: historical foundations and contemporary application. Curr Epidemiol Rep. 2015;2(4):221–228.
   Google Scholar
• Schmidt M, Hallas J, Friis S. Potential of prescription registries to capture individual-level use of aspirin and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in Denmark: trends in utilization 1999-2012. Clin Epidemiol. 2014;6:155–168.
   Google Scholar
• Rothman K, Greenland S, Lash TL. Modern epidemiology. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2008.
   Google Scholar
• Bertholf RL, Sharma R, Reisfield GM. Predictive value of positive drug screening results in an urban outpatient population. J Anal Toxicol. 2016 Nov;40(9):726–731.
   Google Scholar
• Green CA, Perrin NA, Janoff SL, et al. Assessing the accuracy of opioid overdose and poisoning codes in diagnostic information from electronic health records, claims data, and death records. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2017;26(5):509–517.
   Google Scholar
• Lash TL. Heuristic thinking and inference from observational epidemiology. Epidemiology. 2007 Jan;18(1):67–72.
   Google Scholar
• Lash TL, Fox MP, MacLehose RF, et al. Good practices for quantitative bias analysis. Int J Epidemiol. 2014;43(6):1969–1985.
   Google Scholar
• Kharasch ED, Clark JD, Adams JM. Opioids and public health: the prescription opioid ecosystem and need for improved management. Anesthesiology. 2022Jan1;136(1):10–30.
   Google Scholar
• Pergolizzi JVsJr, Raffa RB, Taylor RsJr, et al. Abuse-deterrent opioids: an update on current approaches and considerations. Curr Med Res Opin. 2018;34(4):711–723.
   Google Scholar
• Strickler GK, Zhang K, Halpin JF, et al. Effects of mandatory prescription drug monitoring program (PDMP) use laws on prescriber registration and use and on risky prescribing. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2019;1(199):1–9.
   Google Scholar
• Manders L, Abd-Elsayed A. Mandatory review of prescription drug monitoring program before issuance of a controlled substance results in overall reduction of prescriptions including opioids and benzodiazepines. Pain Physician. 2020 Jun;23(3):299–304.
   Google Scholar
• Ali MM, Dowd WN, Classen T, et al. Prescription drug monitoring programs, nonmedical use of prescription drugs, and heroin use: evidence from the National Survey of Drug Use and Health. Addict Behav. 2017 Jun;69:65–77.
   Google Scholar
• Houweling PL, Molag ML, Van Boekel RLM, et al. Revision of postoperative pain guideline. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd. 2013;157(49):A7005.
   Google Scholar
• National Conference of State Legislatures. Prescribing policies: states confront opioid overdose epidemic 2019 [cited 2022 Feb 23]. Available from: https://www.ncsl.org/research/health/prescribing-policies-states-confront-opioid-overdose-epidemic.aspx
   Google Scholar
• Meara E, Horwitz JR, Powell W, et al. State legal restrictions and prescription-opioid use among disabled adults. N Engl J Med. 2016 Jul 7;375(1):44–53.
   Google Scholar
• Sacarny A, Yokum D, Finkelstein A, et al. Medicare letters to curb overprescribing of controlled substances had no detectable effect on providers. Health Aff (Millwood). 2016 Mar;35(3):471–479.
   Google Scholar
• Barnett ML, Gray J, Zink A, et al. Coupling policymaking with evaluation– the case of the opioid crisis. N Engl J Med. 2017 Dec 14;377(24):2306–2309.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Food and Drug Administration, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER). Abuse-deterrent opioids – evaluation and labeling, guidance for industry. In: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Food and Drug Administration, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER), editor. U.S. department of health and human services food and drug administration, Office of Communications Division of Drug Information; 2015 April. Available from: https://www.fda.gov/files/drugs/published/Abuse-Deterrent-Opioids-Evaluation-and-Labeling.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Sessler NE, Downing JM, Kale H, et al. Reductions in reported deaths following the introduction of extended-release oxycodone (OxyContin) with an abuse-deterrent formulation. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2014 Dec;23(12):1238–1246.
   Google Scholar
• Dart RC, Surratt HL, Cicero TJ, et al. Trends in opioid analgesic abuse and mortality in the United States. N Engl J Med. 2015 Jan 15;372(3):241–248.
   Google Scholar
• Cicero TJ, Ellis MS. Abuse-deterrent formulations and the prescription opioid abuse epidemic in the United States: lessons learned from oxycontin. JAMA Psychiatry. 2015 May;72(5):424–430.
   Google Scholar
• Wolff C, Dowd WN, Ali MM, et al. The impact of the abuse-deterrent reformulation of extended-release OxyContin on prescription pain reliever misuse and heroin initiation. Addict Behav. 2020;105:106268.
   Google Scholar
• Alpert A, Powell D, Pacula RL. Supply-side drug policy in the presence of substitutes: evidence from the introduction of abuse-deterrent opioids. Pain Am Econ J Econ Policy. 2018;10(4):1–35.
   Google Scholar
• Larochelle MR, Zhang F, Ross-Degnan D, et al. Rates of opioid dispensing and overdose after introduction of abuse-deterrent extended-release oxycodone and withdrawal of propoxyphene. JAMA Intern Med. 2015 Jun;175(6):978–987.
   Google Scholar
• Litman RS, Pagán OH, Cicero TJ. Abuse-deterrent opioid formulations. Anesthesiology. 2018 May;128(5):1015–1026.
   Google Scholar
• Strain EC, Stoller K, Walsh SL, et al. Effects of buprenorphine versus buprenorphine/naloxone tablets in non-dependent opioid abusers. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2000 Mar;148(4):374–383.
   Google Scholar
• Dahan A, Sarton E, Teppema L, et al. Anesthetic potency and influence of morphine and sevoflurane on respiration in mu-opioid receptor knockout mice. Anesthesiology. 2001 May;94(5):824–832.
   Google Scholar
• Bohn LM, Lefkowitz RJ, Gainetdinov RR, et al. Enhanced morphine analgesia in mice lacking beta-arrestin 2. Science. 1999 Dec 24;286(5449):2495–2498.
   Google Scholar
• Raehal KM, Walker JK, Bohn LM. Morphine side effects in beta-arrestin 2 knockout mice. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2005 Sep;314(3):1195–1201.
   Google Scholar
• Manglik A, Lin H, Aryal DK, et al. Structure-based discovery of opioid analgesics with reduced side effects. Nature. 2016;537(7619):185–190.
   Google Scholar
• Tan HS, Habib AS. Oliceridine: a novel drug for the management of moderate to severe acute pain – a review of current evidence. J Pain Res. 2021;14:969–979.
   Google Scholar
• Baca CT, Grant KJ. Take-home naloxone to reduce heroin death. Addiction. 2005 Dec;100(12):1823–1831.
   Google Scholar
• Dettmer K, Saunders B, Strang J. Take home naloxone and the prevention of deaths from opiate overdose: two pilot schemes. BMJ. 2001 Apr 14;322(7291):895–896.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization (WHO). Community management of opioid overdose. Geneva; 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Lifesaving naloxone. 2022 [cited 2022 July 20]. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/stopoverdose/naloxone/
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Department of Health and Human Services: Oddice of the Surgeon General. U.S. surgeon general’s advisory on naloxone and opioid overdose. 2022. Available from: https://www.hhs.gov/surgeongeneral/reports-and-publications/addiction-and-substance-misuse/advisory-on-naloxone/index.html
   Google Scholar
• McDonald R, Strang J. Are take-home naloxone programmes effective? Systematic review utilizing application of the Bradford Hill criteria. Addiction. 2016;111(7):1177–1187.
   Google Scholar
• Sugai DY, Deptula PL, Parsa AA, et al. The importance of communication in the management of postoperative pain. Hawaii J Med Public Health. 2013 Jun;72(6):180–184.
   Google Scholar
• Holman JE, Stoddard GJ, Horwitz DS, et al. The effect of preoperative counseling on duration of postoperative opiate use in orthopaedic trauma surgery: a surgeon-based comparative cohort study. J Orthop Trauma. 2014 Sep;28(9):502–506.
   Google Scholar
• Thakur T, Chewning B. Using role theory to explore pharmacist role conflict in opioid risks communication. Res Social Adm Pharm. 2020;16(8):1121–1126.
   Google Scholar
• Esposito DB, Desai VCA, Stephenson JJ, et al. Patient knowledge of safe use of ER/LA opioid analgesics following implementation of the class-wide REMS: a Survey Study. Patient Prefer Adherence. 2021;15:431–442.
   Google Scholar
• Chen EY, Marcantonio A, Tornetta PsIII. Correlation between 24-hour predischarge opioid use and amount of opioids prescribed at hospital discharge. JAMA Surg. 2018;153(2):e174859–e174859.
   Google Scholar
• Bleicher J, Stokes SM, Brooke BS, et al. Patient-centered opioid prescribing: breaking away from one-size-fits-all prescribing guidelines. J Surg Res. 2021 Aug;264:1–7.
   Google Scholar
• Schirle L, Stone AL, Morris MC, et al. Leftover opioids following adult surgical procedures: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Syst Rev. 2020;9(1):139.
   Google Scholar
• Wu PE, Juurlink DN. Unused prescription drugs should not be treated like leftovers. CMAJ. 2014 Aug 5;186(11):815–816.
   Google Scholar
• Okie S. A flood of opioids, a rising tide of deaths. N Engl J Med. 2010 Nov 18;363(21):1981–1985.
   Google Scholar
• Lavand’homme P, Estebe JP. Opioid-free anesthesia: a different regard to anesthesia practice. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2018 Oct;31(5):556–561.
   Google Scholar
• Becker N, Sjøgren P, Bech P, et al. Treatment outcome of chronic non-malignant pain patients managed in a Danish multidisciplinary pain centre compared to general practice: a randomised controlled trial. Pain. 2000 Feb;84(2–3):203–211.
   Google Scholar
• Nichols VP, Toye F, Eldabe S, et al. Experiences of people taking opioid medication for chronic non-malignant pain: a qualitative evidence synthesis using meta-ethnography. BMJ Open. 2020;10(2):e032988.
   Google Scholar
• Wilson M, Roll JM, Corbett C, et al. Empowering patients with persistent pain using an internet-based self-management program. Pain Manag Nurs. 2015;16(4):503–514.
   Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Data from: U.S. opioid dispensing rate maps 2022 [cited 2022 July 19]. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/rxrate-maps/index.html
   Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Opioids: data analysis & resources 2022 [cited 2022 July 18]. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/opioids/data/analysis-resources.html
   Google Scholar