Post-Trauma Psychopathology in Journalists: The Influence of Institutional Betrayal and World Assumptions

References

• Acock, A. C. 2012. “What to Do About Missing Values.” In APA Handbook of Research Methods in Psychology, Vol. 3. Data Analysis and Research Publication, edited by H. Cooper, P. M. Camic, D. L. Long, A. T. Panter, D. Rindskopf, and K. J. Sher, 27–50. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. doi:10.1037/13621-002.
   Google Scholar
• Aiken, L. S., and S. G. West. 1991. Muliple Regression: Testing and Interpreting Interactions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association. 2013. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 5th ed. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• American Psychological Association, Guideline Development Panel for the Treatment of PTSD in Adults. 2017. Clinical Practice Guideline for The Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in adults. Retrieved from https://www.apa.org/ptsd-guideline/.
   Google Scholar
• Aoki, Y., E. Malcolm, S. Yamaguchi, G. Thornicroft, and C. Henderson. 2013. “Mental Illness among Journalists: A Systematic Review.” International Journal of Social Psychiatry 59 (4): 377–390.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Babor, T. F., J. C. Higgins-Biddle, J. B. Saunders, M. G. Monteiro. andWorld Health Organization 2001. AUDIT: The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test: Guidelines For Use In Primary Health Care.
   Google Scholar
• Backholm, K., and K. Björkqvist. 2012. “The Mediating Effect of Depression Between Exposure to Potentially Traumatic Events and PTSD in News Journalists.” European Journal of Psychotraumatology 3: 18388. doi:10.3402/ejpt.v3i0.18388.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Backholm, K., and T. Idås. 2015. “Ethical Dilemmas, Work-Related Guilt, and Posttraumatic Stress Reactions of News Journalists Covering the Terror Attack in Norway in 2011.” Journal of Traumatic Stress 28: 142–148. doi:10.1002/jts.22001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bergman, H., and H. Källmén. 2002. “Alcohol use among Swedes and a Psychometric Evaluation of the Alcohol use Disorders Identification Test.” Alcohol and Alcoholism 37: 245–251. doi:10.1093/alcalc/37.3.245.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berrington, E., and A. Jemphrey. 2003. “Pressures on the Press: Reflections on Reporting Tragedy.” Journalism 4: 225–248.
   Google Scholar
• Blevins, C. A., F. W. Weathers, M. Davis, T. Witte, and J. Domino. 2015. “The Posttraumatic Stress Cisorder Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5): Development and Initial Psychometric Evaluation.” Journal of Traumatic Stress 28: 489–498. doi:10.1002/jts.22059.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breslau, N. 2009. “The Epidemiology of Trauma, PTSD, and Other Posttrauma Disorders.” Trauma, Violence, & Abuse 10: 198–210. doi:10.1177/1524838009334448.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Browne, T., M. Evangeli, and N. Greenberg. 2012. “Trauma-Related Guilt and Posttraumatic Stress among Journalists.” Journal of Traumatic Stress 25: 207–210. doi:10.1002/jts.21678.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buchanan, M. J., and P. A. Keats. 2011. “Coping with Traumatic Stress in Journalism: A Critical Ethnographic Study.” International Journal of Psychology 46: 127–135. doi:10.1080/00207594.2010.532799.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chartier, M. J., J. R. Walker, and B. Naimark. 2007. “Childhood Abuse, Adult Health, and Health Care Utilization: Results From a Representative Community Sample.” American Journal of Epidemiology 165 (9): 1031–1038. doi:10.1093/aje/kwk113.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DePrince, A. P., and J. J. Freyd. 2002. “The Harm of Trauma: Pathological Fear, Shattered Assumptions, or Betrayal?” In Loss of the Assumptive World: A Theory of Traumatic Loss, edited by J. Kauffman, 71–82. New York: Brunner-Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Drevo, S. E. 2016. “The war on Journalists: Pathways to Posttraumatic Stress and Occupational Dysfunction among Journalists.” (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Tulsa.
   Google Scholar
• Dworznik, G. 2011. “Factors Contributing to PTSD and Compassion Fatigue in Television News Workers.” International Journal of Business, Humanities, and Technology 1 (1): 22–32.
   Google Scholar
• Dworznik, G., and M. Grubb. 2007. “Preparing for the Worst: Making a Case for Trauma Training in the Journalism Classroom.” Journalism & Mass Communication Educator 62: 190–210. doi:10.1177/107769580706200206.
   Google Scholar
• Feinstein, A. 2013. “Mexican Journalists and Journalists Covering war: a Comparison of Psychological Wellbeing.” Journal of Aggression, Conflict, and Peace Research 5: 77–85. doi:10.1108/17596591311313672.
   Google Scholar
• Feinstein, A., B. Audet, and E. Waknine. 2014. “Witnessing Images of Extreme Violence: a Psychological Study of Journalists in the Newsroom.” Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine Open 5: 1–7. doi:10.1177/2054270414533323.
   Google Scholar
• Feinstein, A., and D. Nicolson. 2005. “Embedded Journalists in the Iraq war: Are They at Greater Psychological Risk?” Journal of Traumatic Stress 18 (2): 129–132. doi:10.1002/jts.20020.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feinstein, A., J. Owen, and N. Blair. 2002. “A Hazardous Profession: War, Journalists, and Psychopathology.” American Journal of Psychiatry 159 (9): 1570–1575. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.159.9.1570.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• First, M. B., and J. B. Williams. 2016. SCID-5-CV: Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-5 Disorders: Clinician Version. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Foa, E. B., and D. S. Riggs. 1993. “Post-traumatic Stress Disorder in Rape Victims.” In American Psychiatric Press Review of Psychiatry, edited by Riba Oldham J., M. B, and A. Tasman, 273–303. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
   Google Scholar
• Freyd, J. J. 1996. Betrayal Trauma: The Logic of Forgetting Childhood Abuse. Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Freyd, J. J. 1999. “Blind to Betrayal: New Perspectives on Memory.” The Harvard Mental Health Letter 15 (12): 4–6.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Freyd, J. J., A. P. DePrince, and D. H. Gleaves. 2007. “The State of Betrayal Trauma Theory: Reply to McNally—Conceptual Issues, and Future Directions.” Memory 15 (3): 295–311. doi:10.1080/09658210701256514.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harris, S. K., J. Louis-Jacques, and J. R. Knight. 2014. “Screening and Brief Intervention for Alcohol and Other Abuse.” Adolescent Medicine: State of the Art Reviews 25: 126–156.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hatanaka, M., Y. Matsui, K. Ando, K. Inoue, Y. Fukuoka, E. Koshiro, and H. Itamura. 2010. “Traumatic Stress in Japanese Broadcast Journalists.” Journal of Traumatic Stress 23: 173–177.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henry, J. D., and J. R. Crawford. 2005. “The Short-Form Version of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21): Construct Validity and Normative Data in a Large non-Clinical Sample.” British Journal of Clinical Psychology 44: 227–239. doi:10.1348/014466505X29657.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horowitz, M. J. 1986. Stress Response Syndromes. 2nd ed. Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson.
   Google Scholar
• IBM Corp. 2016. IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 24.0. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp.
   Google Scholar
• Janoff-Bulman, R. 1989. “Assumptive Worlds and the Stress of Traumatic Events: Applications of the Schema Construct.” Social Cognition 7: 113–136. doi:10.1521/soco.1989.7.2.113.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janoff-Bulman, R. 1992. Shattered Assumptions—Towards a new Psychology of Trauma. New York: Free Press. doi:10.1080/00029157.1994.10403078.
   Google Scholar
• Johnson, P. O., and J. Neyman. 1936. “Tests of Certain Linear Hypotheses and Their Applications to Some Educational Problems.” Statistical Research Memoirs 1: 57–39.
   Google Scholar
• Keats, P. A., and M. J. Buchanan. 2009. “Addressing the Effects of Assignment Stress Injury: Canadian Journalists’ and Photojournalists’ Recommendations.” Journalism Practice 3: 162–177. doi:10.1080/17512780802681199.
   Google Scholar
• Keats, P. A., and M. J. Buchanan. 2012. “Covering Trauma in Canadian Journalism: Exploring the Challenges.” Traumatology 19 (3): 210–222. doi:10.1177/1534765612466152.
   Google Scholar
• Kilpatrick, D. G., H. S. Resnick, M. E. Milanak, M. W. Miller, K. M. Keyes, and M. J. Friedman. 2013. “National Estimates of Exposure to Traumatic Events and PTSD Prevalence Using DSM-IV and DSM-5 Criteria.” Journal of Traumatic Stress 26: 537–547. doi:10.1002/jts.21848.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lilly, M. M., and B. Hong (Phylice) Lim. 2013. “Shared Pathogeneses of Posttrauma Pathologies: Attachment, Emotion Regulation, and Cognitions.” Journal of Clinical Psychology 69: 737–748. doi:10.1002/jclp.21934.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lilly, M. M., K. H. Howell, and S. Graham-Bermann. 2015. “World Assumptions, Religiosity, and PTSD in Survivors of Intimate Partner Violence.” Violence Against Women 21: 87–104. doi:10.1177/1077801214564139.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lovibond, S. H., and P. F. Lovibond. 1995. Manual for the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (2nd. Ed. Sydney: Psychology Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Marais, A., and A. D. Stuart. 2005. “The Role of Temperament in the Development of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Amongst Journalists.” South African Journal of Psychology 35: 89–105. doi:10.1177/008124630503500106.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McMahon, C. 2001. “Covering Disaster: A Pilot Study Into Secondary Trauma for Print Media Journalists Reporting on Disaster.” Australian Journal of Emergency Management 16: 52–56.
   Google Scholar
• Monteiro, S., A. Marques Pinto, and M. S. Roberto. 2016. “Job Demands, Coping, and Impacts of Occupational Stress among Journalists: A Systematic Review.” European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology 25: 751–772. doi:10.1080/1359432X.2015.1114470.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monteith, L. L., N. H. Bahraini, B. B. Matarazzo, K. A. Soberay, and C. P. Smith. 2016. “Perceptions of Institutional Betrayal Predict Suicidal Self-Directed Violence among Veterans Exposed to Military Sexual Trauma.” Journal of Clinical Psychology 72: 743–755.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monteith, L. L., H. R. Gerber, L. M. Brownstone, K. A. Soberay, and N. H. Bahraini. 2018. “The Phenomenology of Military Sexual Trauma among Male Veterans.” Psychology of Men & Masculinity 20: 115–127. doi:10.1037/men0000153.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morales, R. F., V. R. Perez, and L. Martinez. 2014. “The Psychological Impact of the war Against Drug- Trafficking on Mexican Journalists.” Revista Colombiana de Psicología 23: 177–193.
   Google Scholar
• Newman, E., R. Simpson, and D. Handschuh. 2003. “Trauma Exposure and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder among Photojournalists.” Visual Communication Quarterly 10 (1): 4–13. doi:10.1080/15551390309363497.
   Google Scholar
• Pyevich, C. M., E. Newman, and E. Daleiden. 2003. “The Relationship among Cognitive Schemas, job-Related Traumatic Exposure, and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Journalists.” Journal of Traumatic Stress 16 (4): 325–328. doi:10.1023/A:1024405716529.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenthal, M. N., A. M. Smidt, and J. J. Freyd. 2016. “Still Second Class: Sexual Harassment of Graduate Students.” Psychology of Women Quarterly 40: 364–377. doi:10.1177/16357822.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seely, N. 2017. “Reporting on Trauma: The Psychological Effects of Covering Tragedy and Violence.” (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.
   Google Scholar
• Simpson, R. A., and J. G. Boggs. 1999. “An Exploratory Study of Traumatic Stress among Newspaper Journalists.” Journalism & Communication Monographs 1 (1): 1–26. doi:10.1177/152263799900100102.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, R. J. 2009. “Trauma and Journalism: Exploring a Model of Risk and Resilience.” (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). The University of Tulsa, Oklahoma.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, C. P., and J. J. Freyd. 2013. “Dangerous Safe Havens: Institutional Betrayal Exacerbates Sexual Trauma.” Journal of Traumatic Stress 26: 119–124. doi:10.1002/jts.21778.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, C. P., and J. J. Freyd. 2017. “Insult, then Injury: Interpersonal and Institutional Betrayal Linked to Health and Dissociation.” Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma 26 (10): 1117–1131. doi:10.1080/10926771.2017.1322654.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, R. J., E. Newman, and S. Drevo. 2016. Covering Trauma: Impact on Journalists. Retrieved from https://dartcenter.org/content/covering-trauma-impact-on-journalists.
   Google Scholar
• Tabachnick, B. G., and L. S. Fidell. 2007. Using Multivariate Statistics. Boston: Pearson.
   Google Scholar
• Teegen, F., and M. Grotwinkel. 2001. “Traumatic Exposure and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder of Journalists. An Internet-Based Study.” Psychotherapeut 46: 169–175. http://dx.doi.org.proxy.library.vanderbilt.edu/10.1007/s002780000104.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ward, S. 1999. Pragmatic News Objectivity: Objectivity with a Human Face. Joan Shorenstein Center on the Press, Politics, and Public Policy, Harvard University, John F. Kennedy School of Government.
   Google Scholar
• Weathers, F. W., B. T. Litz, T. M. Keane, P. A. Palmieri, B. P. Marx, and P. P. Schnurr. 2013. The PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5). Scale Available From the National Center for PTSD. Boston, MA: National Center for PTSD at www.ptsd.va.gov.
   Google Scholar