93
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

The Methodology Used by Fact-Checkers. An In-Depth Analysis of Commonly Used Strategies

ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon & ORCID Icon
Received 03 Jul 2023, Accepted 03 Apr 2024, Published online: 16 Apr 2024

References

  • Alemanno, A. 2018. “How to Counter Fake News? A Taxonomy of Anti-Fake News Approaches.” European Journal of Risk Regulation 9: 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1017/err.2018.12.
  • Amazeen, M. A. 2020. “Journalistic Interventions: The Structural Factors Affecting the Global Emergence of Fact-Checking.” Journalism (London, England) 21 (1): 95–111. https://doi.org/10.1177/146488491773021.
  • Apuke, O. D., and B. Omar. 2021. “Fake News and Covid-19: Modelling the Predictors of Fake News Sharing among Social Media Users.” Telematics and Informatics 56: 101475. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2020.101475.
  • Belair-Gagnon, V., R. Larsen, L. Graves, and O. Westlund. 2023. “Knowledge Work in Platform Fact-Checking Partnerships”. International Journal of Communication 17: 21. https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/19851/4044.
  • Dafonte, A., M. I. Míguez, and D. Ramahí. 2022. “Fact-checkers on Social Networks: Analysis of Their Presence and Content Distribution Channels.” Communication & Society 35 (3): 73–89. https://doi.org/10.15581/003.35.3.73-89.
  • Dias, N., and A. Sippitt. 2020. “Researching Fact Checking: Present Limitations and Future Opportunities.” Political Quarterly 91 (3): 605–613. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-923X.12892.
  • Fong, B. 2021. “Analysing the Behavioural Finance Impact of 'Fake News' Phenomena on Financial Markets: a Representative Agent Model and Empirical Validation.” Financial Innovation 7 (1): 211. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40854-021-00271-z.
  • Fridman I., N. Lucas, D. Henke, and C. K. Zigler. 2020. “Association Between Public Knowledge About COVID-19, Trust in Information Sources, and Adherence to Social Distancing: Cross-Sectional Survey.” JMIR Public Health Surveill, 15, 6 (3): e22060. https://doi.org/10.2196/22060. PMID: 32930670; PMCID: PMC7511226.
  • Gillespie, T. 2020. “Content Moderation, AI, and the Question of Scale.” Big Data & Society 7 (2): 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1177/2053951720943234.
  • Graves, L. 2016. Deciding What’s True: The Rise of Political Fact-Checking in American Journalism. New York: Columbia University Press.
  • Graves, L. 2017. “Anatomy of a Fact Check: Objective Practice and the Contested Epistemology of Fact Checking.” Communication, Culture & Critique 10 (3): 518–537.
  • Graves, L., and F. Cherubini. 2016. The Rise of Fact-Checking Sites in Europe. Oxford: Reuters Institute for the study of journalism. https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/our-research/rise-fact-checking-sites-europe.
  • Guo, L., and Ch. Vargo. 2018. “Fake News and Emerging Online Media Ecosys-tem: An Integrated Intermedia Agenda-Setting Analysis of the 2016 U.S. Presidential Election.” Communication Research 47 (2): 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650218777177.
  • Hui Xian Ng, L., and J. Y. Loke. 2021. “Analyzing Public Opinion and Misinformation in a COVID-19 Telegram Group Chat.” IEEE Internet Computing 25 (2): 84–91, 1 March-April. https://doi.org/10.1109/MIC.2020.3040516.
  • Humprecht, E. 2020. “How Do They Debunk Fake News? A Cross-National Comparison of Transparency in Fact Checks.” Digital Journalism 8 (3): 310–327. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2019.1691031.
  • IFCN. 2021. “Los Compromisos del Código de Principios”. Poynter. https://ifcncodeofprinciples.poynter.org/know-more/the-commitments-of-the-code-of-principles.
  • Ireton, Ch., and J. Posetti. 2018. Journalism, ‘Fake News’ & Disinformation: Handbook for Journalism Education and Training. Paris: Unesco Publishing. ISBN: 978 92 3 100281 6 https://en.unesco.org/sites/default/files/journalism_fake_news_disinformation_print_friendly_0_0.pdf.
  • Karlsson, M., and H. Sjøvaag. 2015. “Research Methods in an age of Digital Journalism.” Digital Journalism 4 (1): 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2015.1096595.
  • Kishore, G., A. Dirkson, and T. Majchrzak. 2021. “An Exploratory Study of COVID-19 Misinformation on Twitter.” Online Social Networks and Media 22: 100104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.osnem.2020.100104.
  • Krippendorff, K. 2013. Content Analysis. An Introduction to its Methodology. 3rd ed. California, CA: Sage.
  • Kumar, A. 2022. “Fact-Checking Methodology and its Transparency: What Indian Fact-Checking Websites Have to Say.” Journalism Practice 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2022.2098520.
  • Lamprou, E., N. Antonopoulos, I. Anomeritou, and C. Apostolou. 2021. “Características de las noticias falsas y la desinformación en Grecia: el auge de nuevos modelos periodísticos de verificación de datos basados en crowdsourcing.” Periodismo y medios 2 (3): 417–439. https://doi.org/10.3390/journalmedia2030025.
  • Lázaro, P., and E. Herrera. 2020. “Noticias sobre Covid-19 y 2019-nCoV en medios de comunicación de España: el papel de los medios digitales en tiempos de confinamiento.” El profesional de la información 29 (3): e290302. https://doi.org/10.3145/epi.2020.may.02.
  • Lim, C. 2018. “Checking how Fact-Checkers Check.” Research & Politics 5 (3): 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1177/2053168018786848.
  • Mantzarlis, A. 2018. “Fact-Checking 101.” In Journalism, Fake News & Disinformation: Handbook for Journalism Education and Training, edited by Ch. Ireton, and J. Posetti, 85–100. UNESCO. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000265552
  • Martisi, B. C. 2020, 13 de abril. “Desinformación y fake news durante la Covid-19: cómo cortar la red de contagio.” Compromiso empresarial: la revista líder en innovación social. https://www.compromisoempresarial.com/coronavirus/2020/04/desinformacion-fake-news-tiempos-covid19-como-evitarla/.
  • Martínez-García, L., and I. Ferrer. 2023. “Fact-Checking Journalism: A Palliative Against the COVID-19 Infodemic in Ibero-America.” Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 100 (2): 264–285. https://doi.org/10.1177/10776990231164168.
  • McIntyre, L. 2018. Post-truth. Cambridge: The MIT Press.
  • Mena, P. 2018. “Principles and Boundaries of Fact-Checking: Journalists Perceptions.” Journalism Practice 13 (6): 657–672. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2018.1547655.
  • Nieminen, S., and V. Sankari. 2021. “Checking PolitiFact’s Fact-Checks.” Journalism Studies 22 (3): 358–378. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2021.1873818.
  • OSI. 2019. “¿Sabías que las fake news preocupan al 86% de internautas españoles?” Web de Oficina de Seguridad del Internauta, Gobierno de España, 13 de marzo. https://www.osi.es/es/actualidad/blog/2019/03/13/sabias-que-las-fake-news-preocupan-al-86-de-internautas-espanoles.
  • Palau, D. 2018. “Fact-checking and Scrutiny of Power: Supervision of Public Discourses in new Media Platforms from Latin America.” Communication and Society 31 (3): 347–365. https://doi.org/10.15581/003.31.3.347-365.
  • Quintana, L., and M. Pannunzio. 2021. “Fact-checking en Latinoamérica. Tipología de contenidos virales desmentidos durante la pandemia del coronavirus.” Revista de Ciencias de la Comunicación e Información 26: 27–46. https://doi.org/10.35742/rcci.2021.26.e178.
  • Riffe, D., S. Lacy, and F. G. Fico. 2019. Analyzing Media Messages: Using Quantitative Content Analysis in Research. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN: 9781138613980.
  • Salaverría, R., N. Buslón, F. López, B. León, I. López, and M. C. Erviti. 2020. “Desinformación en tiempos de pandemia: tipología de los bulos sobre la Covid-19.” El profesional de la información 29 (3): e290315. https://doi.org/10.3145/epi.2020.may.15
  • Sánchez, H. M. 2022. “Transformación digital y audiencia. Tendencias y uso de la inteligencia artificial en medios verificadores.” Ámbitos. Revista Internacional De Comunicación 56: 9–20. https://doi.org/10.12795/Ambitos.2022.i56.01.
  • Sánchez, M., H. M. Sánchez, and S. Martínez. 2022. “Inteligencia artificial en verificadores hispanos de la red IFCN: proyectos innovadores y percepción de expertos y profesionales.” Revista Estudios del Mensaje Periodístico 28 (4): 867–879. https://doi.org/10.5209/esmp.82735.
  • Sánchez, M., H. M. Sánchez, and J. Martos. 2022b. “Emprendimiento en Verificación Periodística: Fact-Checkers Hispanos.” In La digitalización en el periodismo. Transformación, retos y oportunidades, edited by H. M. Sánchez, 145–168. Gedisa/SEP. https://doi.org/10.56418/txt.15.2022.006.
  • Shahi, G. K., A. Dirkson, and T. A. Majchrzak. 2021. “An Exploratory Study of COVID-19 Misinformation on Twitter.” Online Social Networks and Media 22: 100104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.osnem.2020.100104.
  • Singer, J. B. 2018. “Fact-Checkers as Entrepreneurs.” Journalism Practice 12 (8): 1070–1080. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2018.1493946.
  • Singer, J. B. 2021. “Border Patrol: The Rise and Role of Fact-Checkers and Their Challenge to Journalists’ Normative Boundaries.” Journalism 22 (8): 1929–1946. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884920933137.
  • Singer, J. B. 2023. “Closing the Barn Door? Fact-Checkers as Retroactive Gatekeepers of the COVID-19 “Infodemic.” Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 100 (2): 332–353. https://doi.org/10.1177/10776990231168599.
  • Singh, K., G. Lima, M. Cha, C. Cha, J. Kulshrestha, Y.-Y. Ahn, et al. (2022). “Misinformation, Believability, and Vaccine Acceptance Over 40 Countries: Takeaways from the Initial Phase of the COVID-19 Infodemic.” PLoS One 17(2): e0263381. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263381.
  • Steensen, S., B. Kalsnes, and O. Westlund. 2023. “The limits of live fact-checking: Epistemological consequences of introducing a breaking news logic to political fact-checking.” New Media & Society. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448231151436.
  • Su, Y., D. K. Lee, and X. Xiao. 2022. “I Enjoy Thinking Critically, and I'm in Control”: Examining the Influences of Media Literacy Factors on Misperceptions Amidst the COVID-19 Infodemic.” Computers in Human Behavior 128: 107111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.107111.
  • Tandoc, E. C., L. Wei, and R. Ling. 2018. “Defining `Fake News`.” Digital Journalism 6 (2): 137–153. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2017.1360143.
  • Telegram. 2020. “Coronavirus News and Verified Channels.” https://telegram.org/blog/coronavirus?ln=r.
  • Tropina, T. 2023. “Pandemics and Infodemics: How COVID-19 is Reshaping Content Regulation?” In Beyond the Pandemic? Exploring the Impact of COVID-19 on Telecommunications and the Internet, edited by J. Whalley, V. Stocker, and W. Lehr, 229–243. Bingley: Emerald Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-80262-049-820231011.
  • Tsang, L. T. N., M. Feng, and L. F. Lee. 2022. “How Fact-Checkers Delimit Their Scope of Practices and use Sources: Comparing Professional and Partisan Practitioners.” Journalism : 24(10): 2232-2251.. https://doi.org/10.1177/14648849221100862.
  • Vázquez, J., Á Vizoso, and X. López. 2019. “Innovación tecnológica y comunicativa para combatir la desinformación: 135 experiencias para un cambio de rumbo.” El profesional de la información 28 (3): e280301. https://doi.org/10.3145/epi.2019.may.01.
  • Vizoso, A., and J. Vázquez. 2019. “Fact-checking Platforms in Spanish. Features, Organisation and Method.” Communication & Society 32 (1): 127–144. https://doi.org/10.15581/003.32.1.127-144.
  • Wang, M., M. Rao, and Z. Sun. 2022. “Typology, Etiology, and Fact-Checking: A Pathological Study of Top Fake News in China.” Journalism Practice 16 (4): 719–737. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2020.1806723.
  • Xiao, X., Y. Su, and D. K. L. Lee. 2021. “Who Consumes New Media Content More Wisely? Examining Personality Factors, SNS Use, and New Media Literacy in the Era of Misinformation.” Social Media + Society 7 (1), https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305121990635.
  • Young, D. G., K. H. Jamieson, and A. Goldring. 2018. “Fact-Checking Effectiveness as a Function of Format and Tone: Evaluating FactCheck.org and FlackCheck.org.” Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 95 (1): 49–75. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077699017710453.
  • Yousuf, M. 2023. “Mediating the Truth: Influences of Routines on Legacy News MediaFact-Checking.” Journalism Practice 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2023.2169187.
  • Zakharchenko, A., T. Peráček, S. Fedushko, Y. Syerov, and O. Trach. 2023. “When Fact-Checking and ‘BBC Standards’ Are Helpless: ‘Fake Newsworthy Event’ Manipulation and the Reaction of the ‘High-Quality Media’ on It.” Sustainability 13 (2): 573. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13020573.
  • Zeng, J., and C.-h. Chan. 2021. “A Cross-National Diagnosis of Infodemics: Comparing the Topical and Temporal Features of Misinformation Around COVID-19 in China, India, the US, Germany and France.” Online Information Review 45 (4): 709–728. https://doi.org/10.1108/OIR-09-2020-0417.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.