Elevation-based upscaling of organic carbon stocks in High-Arctic permafrost terrain: a storage and distribution assessment for Spitsbergen, Svalbard

References

• Abbott B.W., Jones J.B., Schuur E.A.G., Chapin F.S. III, Bowden W.B., Bret-Harte M.S., Epstein H.E., Flannigan M.D., Harms T.K., Hollingsworth T.N., Mack M.C., McGuire A.D., Natali S.M., Rocha A.V., Tank S.E., Turetsky M.R., Vonk J.E., Wickland K.P., Aiken G.R., Alexander H.D., Amon R.M.W., Benscoter B.W., Bergeron Y., Bishop K., Blarquez O., Bond-Lamberty B., Breen A.L., Buffam I., Cai Y., Carcaillet C., Carey S.K., Cooper L.W., Chen H.Y.H., Christensen T.R., Cornelissen J.H.C., de Groot W.J., DeLuca T.H., Dorrepaal E., Fetcher N., Finlay J.C., Forbes B.C., French N.H.F., Gauthier S., Girardin M.P., Goetz S.J., Goldammer J.G., Gough L., Grogan P., Guo L., Higuera P.E., Hinzman L., Hu F.S., Hugelius G., Jafarov E.E., Jandt R., Johnstone J.F., Karlsson J., Kasischke E.S., Kattner G., Kelly R., Keuper F., Kling G.W., Kortelainen P., Kouki J., Kuhry P., Laudon H., Laurion I., Macdonald R.W., Mann P.J., Martikainen P.J., McClelland J.W., Molau U., Oberbauer S.F., Olefeldt D., Paré D., Parisien M.-A., Payette S., Peng C., Pokrovsky O.S., Rastetter E.B., Raymond P.A., Raynolds M.K., Rein G., Reynolds J.F., Robards M., Rogers B.M., Schädel C., Schaefer K., Schmidt I.K., Shvidenko A., Sky J., Spencer R.G.M., Starr G., Striegl R.G., Teisserenc R., Tranvik L.J., Virtanen T., Welker J.M. & Zimov S.A.A. 2016. Biomass offsets little or none of permafrost carbon release from soils, streams, and wildfire: an expert assessment. Environmental Research Letters 11, article no. 034014, doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/11/3/034014.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benjamini Y. & Hochberg Y. 1995. Controlling the false discovery rate: a practical and powerful approach to multiple testing. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series B 57, 1–14.
   Google Scholar
• Bliss L.C. & Matveyeva N.V. 1992. Circumpolar Arctic vegetation. In Chapin F.S. III et al. (eds.): Arctic ecosystems in a changing climate: an ecophysiological perspective. Pp. 59–90. San Diego: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bockheim J.G. 2007. Importance of cryoturbation in redistributing organic carbon in permafrost-affected soils. Soil Science Society of America Journal 71, 1335–1342.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boike J., Ippisch O., Overduin P.P., Hagedorn B. & Roth K. 2008. Water, heat and solute dynamics of a mud boil, Spitsbergen. Geomorphology 95, 61–73.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boike J., Langer M., Lantuit H., Muster S., Roth K., Sachs T., Overduin P.P., Westermann S. & McGuire A.D. 2012. Permafrost – physical aspects, carbon cycling, databases and uncertainties. In R. Lal et al. (eds.): Recarbonization of the biosphere: ecosystems and the global carbon cycle. Pp. 159–185. Dordrecht: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Bondevik S., Mangerud J., Ronnert L. & Salvigsen O. 1995. Postglacial sea-level history of Edgeøya and Barentsøya, eastern Svalbard. Polar Research 14, 153–180.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burke E.J., Hartley I.P. & Jones C.D. 2012. Uncertainties in the global temperature change caused by carbon release from permafrost thawing. Cryosphere 6, 1063–1076.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CAVM Team 2003. Circumpolar Arctic vegetation map. 1:7,500,000 scale. Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna Map no. 1. Anchorage: US Fish and Wildlife Service.
   Google Scholar
• Chadburn S.E., Burke E.J., Essery R.L.H., Boike J., Langer M., Heikenfeld M., Cox P.M. & Friedlingstein P. 2015. Impact of model developments on present and future simulations of permafrost in a global land-surface model. Cryosphere 9, 1505–1521.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ciais P., Sabine C., Bala G., Bopp L., Brovkin V., Canadell J.G., Chhabra A., DeFries R., Galloway J., Heimann M., Jones C., Quéré C.L., Myneni R., Piao S. & Thornton P. 2013. Carbon and other biogeochemical cycles. In T. Stocker et al. (eds.): Climate change 2013. The physical science basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the fifth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Pp. 465–570. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Dallman W.K., Andresen A., Bergh S.G., Maher Jr. H.D. & Ohta Y. 1993. Tertiary fold-and-thrust belt of Spitsbergen, Svalbard. Norsk Polarinstitutt Meddelelser 128. Oslo: Norwegian Polar Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Davidson E.A. & Janssens I.A. 2006. Temperature sensitivity of soil carbon decomposition and feedbacks to climate change. Nature 440, 165–173.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Haas T., Kleinhans M.G., Carbonneau P.E., Rubensdotter L. & Hauber E. 2015. Surface morphology of fans in the High-Arctic periglacial environment of Svalbard: controls and processes. Earth-Science Reviews 146, 163–182.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dean W.E.J. 1974. Determination of carbonate and organic matter in calcareous sediments and sedimentary rocks by loss on ignition: comparison with other methods. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 44, 242–248.
   Google Scholar
• Eckerstorfer M., Christiansen H.H., Vogel S. & Rubensdotter L. 2013. Snow cornice dynamics as a control on plateau edge erosion in central Svalbard. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 38, 466–476.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elberling B., Jakobsen B.H., Berg P., Søndergaard J. & Sigsgaard C. 2004. Influence of vegetation, temperature, and water content on soil carbon distribution and mineralization in four High Arctic soils. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 36, 528–538.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Etzelmüller B. & Sollid J.L. 1991. The role of weathering and pedological processes for the development of sorted circles on Kvadehuksletta, Svalbard – a short report. Polar Research 9, 181–191.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foody G.M. 2002. Status of land cover classification accuracy assessment. Remote Sensing of Environment 80, 185–201.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fuchs M., Kuhry P. & Hugelius G. 2015. Low below-ground organic carbon storage in a Subarctic alpine permafrost environment. Cryosphere 9, 427–438.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harris C., KernLuetschg M., Christiansen H.H. & Smith F. 2011. The role of interannual climate variability in controlling solifluction processes, Endalen, Svalbard. Permafrost and Periglacial Processes 22, 239–253.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heiri O., Lotter A.F. & Lemcke G. 2001. Loss on ignition as a method for estimating organic and carbonate content in sediments: reproducibility and comparability of results. Journal of Paleolimnology 25, 101–110.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hijmans R.J. 2016. Raster: geographic data analysis and modeling. R package, version 2.5-8. http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=raster.
   Google Scholar
• Hobbie S.E., Schimel J.P. & Trumbore S.E. 2000. Controls over carbon storage and turnover in high-latitude soils. Global Change Biology 6, 196–210.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howarth Burnham J. & Sletten R.S. 2010. Spatial distribution of soil organic carbon in northwest Greenland and underestimates of High Arctic carbon stores. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 24, GB3012, doi: 10.1029/2009GB003660.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hugelius G. 2012. Spatial upscaling using thematic maps: an analysis of uncertainties in permafrost soil carbon estimates. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 26, GB2026, doi: 10.1029/2011GB004154
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hugelius G., Bockheim J.G., Camill P., Elberling B., Grosse G., Harden J.W., Johnson K., Jorgenson T., Koven C.D., Kuhry P., Michaelson G.J., Mishra U., Palmtag J., O’Donnell J.A., Schirrmeister L., Schuur E.A.G., Sheng Y., Smith L.C., Strauss J. & Yu Z. 2013. A new data set for estimating organic carbon storage to 3 m depth in soils of the northern circumpolar permafrost region. Earth System Science Data 5, 393–402.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hugelius G., Strauss J., Zubrzycki S., Harden J.W., Schuur E.A.G., Ping C.-L., Schirrmeister L., Grosse G., Michaelson G.J., Koven C.D., O’Donnell J.A., Elberling B., Mishra U., Camill P., Yu Z., Palmtag J. & Kuhry P. 2014. Estimated stocks of circumpolar permafrost carbon with quantified uncertainty ranges and identified data gaps. Biogeosciences 11, 6573–6593.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hugelius G., Tarnocai C., Broll G., Canadell J.G., Kuhry P. & Swanson D.K. 2013. The northern circumpolar soil carbon database: spatially distributed 700 datasets of soil coverage and soil carbon storage in the northern permafrost regions. Earth System Science Data 5, 3–13.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Humlum O., Instanes A. & Sollid J.L. 2003. Permafrost in Svalbard: a review of research history, climatic background and engineering challenges. Polar Research 22, 191–215.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ingólfsson O. 2011. Fingerprints of Quaternary glaciations on Svalbard. In I.P. Martini et al. (eds.): Ice-marginal and periglacial processes and sediments. Pp. 15–31. London: Geological Society.
   Google Scholar
• Johansen B. & Tømmervik H. 2014. The relationship between phytomass, NDVI 708 and vegetation communities on Svalbard. International Journal of Applied Earth Observations and Geoinformation 27, 20–30.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johansen B.E., Karlsen S.R. & Tømmervik H. 2012. Vegetation mapping of Svalbard utilising Landsat TM/ETM+ data. Polar Record 244, 47–63.
   Google Scholar
• Johnson K.D., Harden J., McGuire A.D., Bliss N.B., Bockheim J.G., Clark M., Nettleton-Hollingsworth T., Jorgenson M.T., Kane E.S., Mack M., O’Donnell J., Ping C.L., Schuur E.A.G., Turetsky M.R. & Valentine D.W. 2011. Soil carbon distribution in Alaska in relation to soil-forming factors. Geoderma 167–168, 71–84.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuhn M., Wing J., Weston S., Williams A., Keefer C., Engelhardt A., Cooper T., Mayer Z., Kenkel B., Core Team R., Benesty M., Lescarbeau R., Ziem A., Scrucca L., Tang Y., Candan C. & Hunt T. 2016. Caret: classification and regression training. R package version 6.0-73. https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=caret.
   Google Scholar
• Kuhry P., Mazhitova G., Forest P., Deneva S., Virtanen T. & Kultti S. 2002. Upscaling soil organic carbon estimates for the Usa Basin (northeast European Russia) using GIS-based landcover and soil classification schemes. Danish Journal of Geography 102, 11–25.
   Google Scholar
• Lampiris N. 2016. Upscaling soil organic carbon estimates in continuous permafrost terrain of Svalbard using landform and land cover classification schemes. Msc thesis, Stockholm University.
   Google Scholar
• Landvik J.Y., Bondevik S., Elverhøi A., Fjeldskaar W., Mangerud J., Salvigsen O., Siegert M.J., Svendsen J.I. & Vorren T.O. 1998. The last glacial maximum of Svalbard and the Barents sea area: ice sheet extent and configuration. Quaternary Science Reviews 17, 43–75.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Long A.J., Strzelecki M.C., Lloyd J.M. & Bryant C.L. 2012. Dating High Arctic Holocene relative sea level changes using juvenile articulated marine shells in raised beaches. Quaternary Science Reviews 48, 61–66.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luo Y., Ahlström A., Allison S.D., Batjes N.H., Brovkin V., Carvalhais N., Chappell A., Ciais P., Davidson E.A., Finzi A., Georgiou K., Guenet B., Hararuk O., Harden J.W., He Y., Hopkins F., Jiang L., Koven C., Jackson R.B., Jones C.D., Lara M.J., Liang J., Mcguire A.D., Parton W., Peng C., Randerson J.T., Salazar A., Sierra C.A., Smith M.J., Tian H., Todd-Brown K.E.O., Torn M., Groenigen K.J., Wang Y.P., West T.O., Wei Y., Wieder W.R., Xia J., Xu X., Xu X. & Zhou T. 2016. Toward more realistic projections of soil carbon dynamics by Earth system models. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 30, 40–56.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Melton J.R. & Arora V.K. 2014. Sub-grid scale representation of vegetation in global land surface schemes: implications for estimation of the terrestrial carbon sink. Biogeosciences 11, 1021–1036.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller P.C., Kendall R. & Oechel W.C. 1983. Simulating carbon accumulation in northern ecosystems. Simulation 40, 119–131.
   Google Scholar
• Mishra U., Drewniak B., Jastrow J.D., Matamala R.M. & Vitharana U.W.A. 2016. Spatial representation of organic carbon and active-layer thickness of high latitude soils in CMIP5 earth system models. Geoderma 300, 55–63.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mishra U., Jastrow J.D., Matamala R., Hugelius G., Koven C.D., Harden J.W., Ping C.L., Michaelson G.J., Fan Z., Miller R.M., McGuire A.D., Tarnocai C., Kuhry P., Riley W.J., Schaefer K.M., Schuur E.A.G., Jorgenson M.T. & Hinzman L.D. 2013. Empirical estimates to reduce modeling uncertainties of soil organic carbon in permafrost regions: a review of recent progress and remaining challenges. Environmental Research Letters 8. article no. 35020. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/8/3/035020.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mishra U. & Riley W.J. 2012. Alaskan soil carbon stocks: spatial variability and dependence on environmental factors. Biogeosciences 9, 3637–3645.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Norwegian Polar Institute 2014a. Kartdata Svalbard 1:100 000. S100 Kartdata. Svalbard map data set available on the internet at https://data.npolar.no/dataset/645336c7-adfe-4d5a-978d-9426fe788ee3.
   Google Scholar
• Norwegian Polar Institute 2014b. Terrengmodell Svalbard. S0 Terrengmodell. Terrain model data set available on the internet at https://data.npolar.no/dataset/dce53a47-c726-4845-85c3-a65b46fe2fea.
   Google Scholar
• Oliva M., Vieira G., Pina P., Pereira P., Neves M. & Freitas M.C. 2014. Sedimentological characteristics of ice-wedge polygon terrain in adventdalen (Svalbard) environmental and climatic implications for the late Holocene. Solid Earth 5, 901–914.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palmtag J., Hugelius G., Lashchinskiy N., Tamstorf M.P., Richter A., Elberling B. & Kuhry P. 2015. Storage, landscape distribution, and burial history of soil organic matter in contrasting areas of continuous permafrost. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 47, 71–88.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palmtag J., Ramage J., Hugelius G., Gentsch N., Lashchinskiy N., Richter A. & Kuhry P. 2016. Controls on the storage of organic carbon in permafrost soil in northern Siberia. European Journal of Soil Science 67, 478–491.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parmentier F.-J.W., Christensen T.R., Rysgaard S., Bendtsen J., Glud R.N., Else B., Van Huissteden J., Sachs T., Vonk J.E. & Sejr M.K. 2017. A synthesis of the Arctic terrestrial and marine carbon cycles under pressure from a dwindling cryosphere. Ambio 46, 53–69.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ping C.-L., Michaelson G.J., Jorgenson M.T., Kimble J.M., Epstein H., Romanovsky V.E. & Walker D.A. 2008. High stocks of soil organic carbon in the North American Arctic region. Nature Geoscience 1, 615–619.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• R Core Team 2016. R: a language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna: R Foundation for Statistical Computing.
   Google Scholar
• Salvigsen O. 1984. Occurrence of pumice on raised beaches and Holocene shoreline displacement in the inner Isfjorden area, Svalbard. Polar Research 2, 107–113.
   Google Scholar
• Sanchez P.A., Ahamed S., Carré F., Hartemink A.E., Hempel J., Huising J., Lagacherie P., McBratney A.B., McKenzie N.J., de Lourdes Mendonça-Santos M., Minasny B., Montanarella L., Okoth P., Palm C.A., Sachs J.D., Shepherd K.D., Vågen T., Vanlauwe B., Walsh M.G., Winowiecki L.A. & Zhang G.-L. 2009. Digital soil map of the world. Science 325, 680–681.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schuur E.A.G., McGuire A.D., Schädel C., Grosse G., Harden J.W., Hayes D.J., Hugelius G., Koven C.D., Kuhry P., Lawrence D.M., Natali S.M., Olefeldt D., Romanovsky V.E., Schaefer K., Turetsky M.R., Treat C.C. & Vonk J.E. 2015. Climate change and the permafrost carbon feedback. Nature 520, 171–179.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shaver G.R., Billings W.D., Chapin F.S., Giblin A.E., Nadelhoffer K.J., Oechel W.C. & Rastetter E.B. 1992. Global change and the carbon balance of Arctic ecosystems. BioScience 42, 433–441.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siewert M.B., Hanisch J., Weiss N., Kuhry P., Maximov T.C. & Hugelius G. 2015. Comparing carbon storage of Siberian tundra and taiga permafrost ecosystems at very high spatial resolution. Journal of Geophysical Research—Biogeosciences 120, 1973–1994.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tarnocai C. 2000. Carbon pools in soils of the Arctic, Subarctic and boreal regions of Canada. In R. Lal et al. (eds.): Global climate change and cold regions ecosystems. Pp. 91–103. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
   Google Scholar
• Tarnocai C., Canadell J.G., Schuur E.A.G., Kuhry P., Mazhitova G. & Zimov S. 2009. Soil organic carbon pools in the northern circumpolar permafrost region. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 23, GB2023, doi: 10.1029/2008GB003327.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiss N., Blok D., Elberling B., Hugelius G., Jørgensen C.J., Siewert M.B. & Kuhry P. 2016. Thermokarst dynamics and soil organic matter characteristics controlling initial carbon release from permafrost soils in the Siberian Yedoma region. Sedimentary Geology 340, 38–48.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Worsley D. 2008. The post-Caledonian development of Svalbard and the western Barents Sea. Polar Research 27, 298–317.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoshitake S., Uchida M., Ohtsuka T., Kanda H., Koizumi H. & Nakatsubo T. 2011. Vegetation development and carbon storage on a glacier foreland in the High Arctic, Ny-Ålesund, Svalbard. Polar Science 5, 391–397.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar