The beginning of time? Evidence for catastrophic drought in Baringo in the early nineteenth century

References

• Anacleti, A. Odhiambo. “Serengeti: Its People and Their Environment.” Tanganyika Notes & Records 81/82 (1977): 23–34.
   Google Scholar
• Anderson, David M. “Agriculture and Irrigation at Lake Baringo in the Nineteenth Century.” Azania 24 (1989): 85–98. doi: 10.1080/00672708909511400
   Google Scholar
• Anderson, David M. “Cultivating Pastoralists: Economy and Ecology among Il Chamus of Baringo, 1840–1980.” In Ecology of Survival: Case Studies from Northeast African History, edited by David M. Anderson and Douglas H. Johnson, 241–260. London: Lester Crook & Westview, 1989.
   Google Scholar
• Anderson, David M. Eroding the Commons: The Politics of Ecology in Baringo, Kenya. Oxford: James Currey, 2002.
   Google Scholar
• Ashley, G. M., M. J. Maitima, A. M. Muasya, R. B. Owen, S. G. Driese, V. C. Hover, R. W. Renaut, M. F. Goman, S. Mathai, and S. H. Blatt. “Sedimentation and Recent History of a Freshwater Wetland in a Semi-arid Environment: Loboi Swamp, Kenya, East Africa.” Sedimentology 51 (2004): 1301–1321. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3091.2004.00671.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Avanchers, P. Leon des. “Esquisse geographique des pays Oromo ou Galla, de pays Soomali, et de la cote orientale d'Afrique.” Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie 17 (1859): 153–170.
   Google Scholar
• Aynalem Zenebe Degefa, Ilse Bessems, Rik Tjallingii, Brian Cumming, and Dirk Verschuren. “200 Years of Anthropogenic Soil Erosion in the Lake Baringo Catchment, Kenya: Exploratory Evidence from Lake Sediments.” Journal of African Earth Sciences (Forthcoming).
   Google Scholar
• Bassi, Marco. “Primary Identities in the Lower Omo Valley: Migration, Cataclysm, Conflict and Amalgamation.” Journal of Eastern African Studies 5, no. 1 (2011): 129–157. doi: 10.1080/17531055.2011.552280
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baxter, P. T. W., and Uri Almagor, eds. Age, Generation and Time: Some Features of East African Age Organisations. London: Hurst, 1978.
   Google Scholar
• Bessems, I., D. Verschuren, J. M. Russell, J. Hus, F. Mees, and B. F. Cumming. “Palaeolinmological Evidence for Widespread Late 18th Century Drought across Equatorial East Africa.” Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 259 (2008): 107–120. doi: 10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.10.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bloszies, C., and S. L. Forman. “Potential Relation between Equatorial Sea Surface Temperatures and Historic Water Level Variability for Lake Turkana, Kenya.” Journal of Hydrology 520 (2015): 489–501. doi: 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bollig, Michael. “Adaptive Cycles in the Savannah: Pastoral Specialization and Diversification in Northern Kenya.” Journal of Eastern African Studies 10, no. 1 (2016): 21–44.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bollig, Michael. Die Krieger der Gelben Gewehre: Intra- und Interethnische Konfliktaustragung bei den Pokot Nordwestkenias. Münster: Lit-Verlag, 1992.
   Google Scholar
• Bollig, Michael, and M. Österle. “The Political Ecology of Specialisation and Diversification: Long-term Dynamics of Pastoralism in East Pokot District, Kenya.” In Pastoralism in Africa: Past, Present, Future, edited by M. Bollig, M. Schnegg, and H. P. Wotzka, 289–315. New York: Berghahn, 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Davies, Matthew I. J. “Economic Specialisation, Resource Variability and the Origins of Intensive Agriculture in Eastern Africa.” Rural Landscapes: Society, Environment, History 2, no. i (2015): 1–18.
   Google Scholar
• Davies, Matthew I. J., and Henrietta Moore. “Landscape, Time and Cultural Resilience: A Brief History of Agriculture in Pokot and Marakwet, Kenya.” Journal of Eastern African Studies 10, no. 1 (2016): 67–87.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Cort, Gijs, Ilse Bessems, Edward Keppens, Florias Mees, Brian Cumming, and Dirk Verschuren. “Late Holocene and Recent Hydroclimate Variability in the Central Kenyan Rift Valley: The Sediment Record of Hypersaline Lakes Bogoria, Nakuru and Elementeita.” Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 388 (2013): 69–80. doi: 10.1016/j.palaeo.2013.07.029
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dietz, Ton. Pastoralists in Dire Straits: Survival Strategies and External Interventions in a Semi-arid Region at the Kenya/Uganda Border: Western Pokot, 1900–1986. Koninklijk Nederlands Aardrijkskundig Genootschap: Instituut voor Sociale Geografie, Universiteit van Amsterdam, 1987.
   Google Scholar
• Dundas, K. R. “Notes on the Tribes Inhabiting the Baringo District, East African Protectorate.” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 40 (1910): 49–72.
   Google Scholar
• Farler, J. P. “Native Routes in East Africa from Pangani to the Masai Country and to the Victoria Nyanza.” Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and Monthly Record of Geography 4 (1882): 730–742. doi: 10.2307/1800695
   Google Scholar
• Fosbrooke, H. A. “An Administrative Survey of the Masai Social System.” Tanganyika Notes & Records 26 (1948): 60–93.
   Google Scholar
• Fosbrooke, H. A. “The Maasai Age-group System as a Guide to Tribal Chronology.” African Studies 15, no. iv (1956): 188–206. doi: 10.1080/00020185608707001
   Google Scholar
• Gelorini, Vanessa, and Dirk Verschuren. “Historical Climate-human-ecosystem Interaction in Eastern Africa: A Review.” African Journal of Ecology 51 (2013): 409–421. doi: 10.1111/aje.12045
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halfman, J. D., T. C. Johnson, and B. P. Finney. “New AMS Dates, Stratigraphic Correlations and Decadal Climatic Cycles for the Past 4-kA at Lake Turkana, Kenya.” Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 111 (1994): 83–98. doi: 10.1016/0031-0182(94)90349-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herring, Ralph. “Hydrology and Chronology: The Rodah Nilometer as an Aid to Dating Interlacustrine History.” In Chronology, Migration and Drought in Interlacustrine Africa, edited by J. B. Webster, 39–86. London: Longman, 1979.
   Google Scholar
• Hollis, A. C. The Masai. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1905.
   Google Scholar
• Hughes, Lotte. Moving the Maasai: A Colonial Misadventure. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
   Google Scholar
• Huntingford, G. W. B. The Nandi of Kenya: Tribal Control in a Pastoral Society. London: Kegan Paul, 1953.
   Google Scholar
• Jacobs, Alan H. “A Chronology of the Pastoral Maasai.” In Hadith 1, edited by Bethwell A. Ogot, 10–32. Nairobi: Kenya Literature Bureau, 1968.
   Google Scholar
• Kettel, David W. W. “Passing Like Flowers: The Marriage Regulations of the Tugen of Kenya and Their Implications for a Theory of Crow Omaha.” PhD thesis, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1975.
   Google Scholar
• Kettel, David W. W. “What's in a Name? Age-organization and Reincarnation Beliefs of the Tugen-Kalenjin.” Unpublished seminar paper, Institute of African Studies, University of Nairobi, April 1972.
   Google Scholar
• Kiage, L. M., and K-B. Liu. “Palynological Evidence of Climate Change and Land Degradation in the Lake Baringo Area, Kenya, Since AD 1650.” Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 279 (2009): 60–72. doi: 10.1016/j.palaeo.2009.05.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kipkulei, B. K. “The Origin, Migration and Settlement of the Tugen People, with Special Reference to the Aror, from the Earliest Times to the Turn of the 20th Century.” BA dissertation, History Department, University of Nairobi, 1972.
   Google Scholar
• Krapf, L. J. Travels, Researches and Missionary Labours During Eighteen Years of Residence in East Africa. London: Trubner & Co., 1860.
   Google Scholar
• Krapf, J. L. Vocabulary of the Engutuk Eloikob. Tubingen: L.F. Fues, 1854.
   Google Scholar
• Lamb, Henry, M. J. Leng, R. J. Telford, T. Ayenew, and Mohammed Umer. “Oxygen and Carbon Isotope, Composition of Authigenic Carbonate from an Ethiopian Lake: A Climate Record of the Last 2000 Years.” The Holocene 17 (2007): 517–526. doi: 10.1177/0959683607076452
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lamphear, John. “Aspects of ‘Becoming Turkana’: Interactions and Assimilation between Maa- and Ateker Speakers.” In Being Maasai: Ethnicity and Identity in East Africa, edited by T. Spear and R. Waller, 87–104. London: Currey, 1993.
   Google Scholar
• Lamphear, John. “The People of the Grey Bull: The Origin and Expansion of the Turkana.” Journal of African History 29, no. 1 (1988): 27–39.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lamphear, John. The Scattering Time: Turkana Responses to Colonial Rule. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976.
   Google Scholar
• Lamphear, John. The Traditional History of the Jie of Uganda. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976.
   Google Scholar
• Lamphear, John. “When the Ngitome Speared Their Oxen: Problems in Reconstructing the Chronology of the Jie.” In Chronology, Migration and Drought in Interlacustrine Africa, edited by J. B. Webster, 263–282. London: Longman, 1979.
   Google Scholar
• Little, Peter D. The Elusive Granary: Herder, Farmer and State in Northern Kenya. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
   Google Scholar
• McCann, James C. People of the Plow: An Agricultural History of Ethiopia, 1800–1990. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1995.
   Google Scholar
• Nicholson, Sharon E. “Environmental Change within the Historical Period.” In The Physical Geography of Africa, edited by W. A. Adams, A. S. Goudie, and A. R. Orme, 60–87. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.
   Google Scholar
• Nicholson, Sharon E. “Historical Fluctuations of Lake Victoria and Other Lakes in the Northern Rift Valley of East Africa.” In Environmental Change and Response in East African Lakes, edited by J. T. Lehman, 7–35. Amsterdam: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1998.
   Google Scholar
• Olaka, L. A., E. O. Odada, M. H. Trauth, and D. O. Olago. “The Sensitivity of East African Rift Lakes to Climate Fluctuations.” Journal of Paleolimnology 44 (2010): 629–644. doi: 10.1007/s10933-010-9442-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peristiany, J. G. “The Age-set System of the Pastoral Pokot.” Africa 21, iii/iv 1951.
   Google Scholar
• Peristiany, J. G. Social Institutions of the Kipsigis. London: Clarendon Press, 1939.
   Google Scholar
• Prins, A. J. H. East African Age-Class Systems. Groningen: Djakarta, 1953.
   Google Scholar
• Robinson, Paul. “Gabbra Nomadic Pastoralism in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Northern Kenya: Strategies for Survival in a Marginal Environment.” Unpublished PhD thesis, Northwestern University, 1985.
   Google Scholar
• Rubensen, Sven, ed. Acta Aethiopica, vol 1: Correspondence and Treaties 1800–1854. Evanston: University of Illinois Press, 1987.
   Google Scholar
• Schlee, Gunther. Identities on the Move: Clanship and Pastoralism in Northern Kenya. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1989.
   Google Scholar
• Shetler, Jan Bender. “Interpreting Rupture in Oral Memory: The Regional Context for Changes in Western Serengeti Age Organization (1850–1895).” Journal of African History 44 (2003): 385–412. doi: 10.1017/S0021853703008491
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shetler, Jan Bender. Telling Our Own Stories: Local Histories from South Mara, Tanzania. Leiden: Brill, 2003.
   Google Scholar
• Simpson, George L. Jr., and Peter Waweru. “Becoming Samburu: The Ethnogenesis of a Pastoral People in Nineteenth-century Northern Kenya.” Journal of the Middle East and Africa 3, no. ii (2012): 175–197. doi: 10.1080/21520844.2012.738573
   Google Scholar
• Sobania, Neal P. “Defeat and Dispersal: The Laikipiak and Their Neighbours at the End of the Nineteenth Century.” In Being Maasai: Ethnicity and Identity in East Africa, edited by Thomas Spear and Richard Waller, 105–119. London: James Currey, 1994.
   Google Scholar
• Sobania, Neal P. “The Formation of Ethnic Identity in South Omo: The Dassanech.” Journal of Eastern African Studies 5, no. 1 (2011): 195–210. doi: 10.1080/17531055.2011.544542
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sobania, Neal P. “The Historical Traditions of the Peoples of the Eastern Lake Turkana Basin, c.1840–1925.” PhD thesis, SOAS, University of London, 1980.
   Google Scholar
• Sobania, Neal P., and Richard D. Waller. “Oral History and the End of Time.” Unpublished paper, African History Seminar, SOAS London, 13 December 1989.
   Google Scholar
• Spencer, Paul. Nomads in Alliance: Symbiosis and Growth among the Rendille and Samburu of Kenya. London: Oxford University Press, 1973.
   Google Scholar
• Spencer, Paul. The Pastoral Continuum: The Marginalization of Tradition in East Africa. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998.
   Google Scholar
• Spencer, Paul. The Samburu: A Study of Gerontocracy in a Nomadic Tribe. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1965.
   Google Scholar
• Ssemmanda, Immaculate, Vanessa Gelorini, and Dirk Verschuren. “Sensitivity of the Grassland-forest Ecotone in East African Open Woodland Savannah to Historical Rainfall Variation.” Climate of the Past Discussions 10, no. ii (2014): 1675–1706. doi: 10.5194/cpd-10-1675-2014
   Google Scholar
• Stager, J. C., D. Ryves, B. F. Cumming, L. D. Meeker, and J. Beer. “Solar Variability and the Levels of Lake Victoria, East Africa, during the Last Millennium.” Journal of Palaeolimnology 33 (2005): 243–251. doi: 10.1007/s10933-004-4227-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tarits, C., W. R. Renaut, J. J. Tiercelin, A. L. H´erisśe, J. Cotten, and J. Y. Cabon. “Geochemical Evidence of Hydrothermal Recharge in Lake Baringo, Central Kenya Rift Valley.” Hydrological Processes 20 (2006): 2027–2055. doi: 10.1002/hyp.6046
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomson, Joseph. Through Masailand. London: Sampson, Low, Marston & Company, 1887.
   Google Scholar
• Tierney, Jessica E., J. E. Smerdon, K. J. Anchukaitis, and R. Seager. “Multidecadal Variability in East African Hydroclimate Controlled by the Indian Ocean.” Nature 493 (2013): 389–392. doi: 10.1038/nature11785
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tiki, Waktole. “The Dynamics of Ancient Tula Wells Cultural Landscape: Environmental and Social History, ca. 1560 to the Present.” Ph.D. thesis, Norwegian University of Life Science (Noragric), 2010.
   Google Scholar
• Tiki, Waktole, and Gufu Oba. “Ciinna e: The Borana Oromo Narration of the 1890s Great Rinderpest Epizootic in North Eastern Africa.” Journal of Eastern African Studies 3 (2009): 479–508. doi: 10.1080/17531050903273750
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tiki, Waktole, Gufu Oba, and Terje Tvedt. “Human Stewardship, or Ruining Cultural Landscapes of Ancient Tula Wells, Southern Ethiopia.” The Geographical Journal 177 (2011): 62–78. doi: 10.1111/j.1475-4959.2010.00369.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tiki, Waktole, Gufu Oba, and Terje Tvedt. “An Indigenous Time-related Framework for Reconstructing the Impact of Disasters on Ancient Water Systems in Southern Ethiopia, 1560–1950.” Journal of Historical Geography 41 (2013): 33–43. doi: 10.1016/j.jhg.2012.12.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turton, David. “Movement, Warfare and Ethnicity in the Lower Omo Valley.” In Herders, Warriors and Traders: Pastoralism in Africa, edited by J. Galaty and P. Bonte, 145–170. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1991.
   Google Scholar
• Verschuren, Dirk. “Decadal and Century-scale Climate Variability in Tropical Africa during the Past 2000 Years.” In Past Climate Variability in Europe and Africa, edited by R. W. Battarbee, F. Gasse, and C. E. Stickley, 139–158. Dordrecht: Springer, 2004.
   Google Scholar
• Verschuren, Dirk. “Influence of Depth and Mixing Regime on Sedimentation in a Small, Fluctuating Tropical Soda Lake.” Limnology & Oceanography 44, 4 (1999): 1103–1113. doi: 10.4319/lo.1999.44.4.1103
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verschuren, Dirk. “Lake-based Climate Reconstruction in Africa: Progress and Challenges.” Hydrobiologia 500 (2003): 315–330. doi: 10.1023/A:1024686229778
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verschuren, Dirk. “Reconstructing Fluctuations of a Shallow East African Lake during the Past 1800 Years, from Sediment Stratigraphy in a Submerged Crater Basin.” Journal of Paleolimnology 25 (2001): 297–311. doi: 10.1023/A:1011150300252
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verschuren, Dirk, and D. Charman. “Latitudinal Linkages in Late-Holocene Moisture-balance Variation.” In Natural Climate Variability and Global Warming, edited by R. W. Battarbee and H. A. Binney, 189–231. Oxford: Blackwell, 2008.
   Google Scholar
• Verschuren, Dirk, K. R. Laird, and B. F. Cumming. “Rainfall and Drought in Equatorial East Africa during the Past 1,100 years.” Nature 403 (2000): 410–414. doi: 10.1038/35000179
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verschuren, Dirk, J. Tibby, P. R. Leavitt, and C. N. Roberts. “The Environmental History of a Climate Sensitive Lake in the Former ‘White Highlands’ of Central Kenya.” Ambio 28, no. 6 (1999): 494–501.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wakefield, T. “Routes of Native Caravans from the Coast to the Interior of Eastern Africa, Chiefly from Information Given by Sadi Bin Ahedi, a Native of a District near Gazi, in Udigo, a Little North of Zanzibar.” Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London 40 (1870): 303–338. doi: 10.2307/1798649
   Google Scholar
• Waller, Richard D. “Dating the Undatable.” Journal of African History 23, no. iv (1982): 568–570. doi: 10.1017/S002185370002140X
   Google Scholar
• Waller, Richard D. “Ecology, Migration and Expansion in East Africa.” African Affairs 84 (1985): 347–370.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waller, Richard D. “Economic and Social Relations in the Central Rift Valley: The Maa-speakers and Their Neighbours in the Nineteenth Century.” In Kenya in the 19th Century (Hadith 8), edited by Bethwell A. Ogot, 83–151. Nairobi: Bookwise Ltd & Anyange Press, 1985.
   Google Scholar
• Waller, Richard D. “Interaction and Identity on the Periphery: The Trans-Mara Maasai.” International Journal of African Historical Studies 17 (1984): 243–284. doi: 10.2307/218606
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waller, Richard D. “The Lords of East Africa: The Maasai in the Mid-Nineteenth Century.” PhD thesis, University of Cambridge, 1978.
   Google Scholar
• Walter, B. J. “The Territorial Expansion of the Nandi of Kenya, 1500–1905.” Working Paper in African Studies, Ohio University, 1970.
   Google Scholar
• Webster, J. B., ed. Chronology, Migration and Drought in Interlacustrine Africa. London: Longman, 1979.
   Google Scholar
• Webster, J. B. “Noi! Noi! Famines as an aid to Interlacustrine Chronology.” In Chronology, Migration and Drought in Interlacustrine Africa, edited by J. B. Webster, 1–37. London: Longman, 1979.
   Google Scholar
• Wolff, C., G. H. Haug, A. Timmermann, J. S. Damste, A. Brauer, D. M. Sigman, M. Cane, and D. Verschuren. “Reduced Interannual Rainfall Variability in East Africa during the Last Ice Age.” Science 333 (2011): 743–747. doi: 10.1126/science.1203724
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar