Press coverage of lone-actor terrorism in the UK and Denmark: shaping the reactions of the public, affected communities and copycat attackers

References

• Abrahms, M. 2014. “Deterring Terrorism: A New Strategy.” Perspectives on Terrorism 8: 3.
   Google Scholar
• Ahmed, S., and J. Matthes. 2017. “Media Representation of Muslims and Islam from 2000 to 2015: A Meta-Analysis.” International Communication Gazette 79 (3): 219–244. doi:10.1177/1748048516656305.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Altikriti, A., and S. Al-Mahadin. 2015. “Muslim “Hate Preachers’ in British Tabloids: Constructing the British Self and the Muslim Other.” European Journal of Cultural Studies 18 (6): 620–638. doi:10.1177/1367549415572322.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bakker, E., and D. G. Beatrice. 2011. “Preventing Lone Wolf Terrorism: Some CT Approaches Addressed.” Perspectives on Terrorism 5 (5–6): 43–50.
   Google Scholar
• Bauer, M. W. 2000. “Classical Content Analysis: A Review.” In Qualitative Researching with Text, Image and Sound: A Practical Handbook for Social Research, edited by M. W. Bauer and G. Gaskell. London: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Beauchamp, Z. 2017. “The London Attack Is the New Face of Terrorism — And It’s Very Hard to Stop.” accessed 18 Janaury. https://www.vox.com/world/2017/6/5/15739168/london-attack-terrorism-counterterrorism.
   Google Scholar
• Berg, B. L. 2001. Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences. 4th ed. Needham Heights, MA: Sage Publications .
   Google Scholar
• Bjerre, M. 2013. “Soldater er jaget vildt.”Berlingske. May 24, p. 17.
   Google Scholar
• Borger, J. 2016. “French Media to Stop Publishing Photos and Names of Terrorists.” The Guardian, 27 July. https://www.theguardian.com/media/2016/jul/27/french-media-to-stop-publishing-photos-and-names-of-terrorists.
   Google Scholar
• Bouhana, N., S. Malthaner, B. Schuurman, L. Lindekilde, A. Thornton, and Paul Gill. 2018. “Lone-Actor Terrorism: Radicalisation, Attack Planning and Execution.” In Routledge Handbook of Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism, edited by A. Silke. Abingdon: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Bremner, C. 2014. “France Orders Troops on Streets to Halt Lone-Wolf Terror Attacks.” The Times, 24 December 2014, 1, News.
   Google Scholar
• Burton, F., and S. Stewart. 2008. “The Lone Wolf Disconnect.” Terrorism Intelligence Report-STRATFOR.
   Google Scholar
• Bush, G. H. 2002. “State of the Union Address “, accessed 22/03. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2002/01/20020129-11.html. doi: 10.1044/1059-0889(2002/er01)
   Google Scholar
• Byman, D. L. 2017. Can Lone Wolves Be Stopped? Brookings Institute. Accessed 13 February 2018. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/markaz/2017/03/15/can-lone-wolves-be-stopped/.
   Google Scholar
• CBS News. 2010. “CIA Chief: Al Qaeda Poised to Attack U.S.”, accessed 23 March 2018. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/cia-chief-al-qaeda-poised-to-attack-us/.
   Google Scholar
• Collins, D., and C. Hughes. 2015. “Matter of Time: Jihadi Terror Spreads in Europe.” Daily Mirror, 16 February, 2, News.
   Google Scholar
• Corner, E., and P. Gill. 2015. “A False Dichotomy? Mental Illness and Lone-Actor Terrorism.” Law and Human Behavior 39 (1): 23. doi:10.1037/lhb0000126.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corner, E., and P. Gill. 2017. “Is There a Nexus between Terrorist Involvement and Mental Health in the Age of the Islamic State?” The CTC Sentinel 10 (1): 1–10.
   Google Scholar
• Corner, E., P. Gill, and O. Mason. 2016. “Mental Health Disorders and the Terrorist: A Research Note Probing Selection Effects and Disorder Prevalence.” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 39 (6): 560–568. doi:10.1080/1057610X.2015.1120099.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coughlin, C. 2014. “Rise of the ‘Lone Wolf’ Attacker Is Greatest Security Challenge for West; Analysis.” The Daily Telegraph, 24 October 2014, 1, News.
   Google Scholar
• Davies, W. A. 2018. “Counterterrorism Effectiveness to Jihadists in Western Europe and the United States: We are Losing the War on Terror.” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 41 (4): 1–16. doi:10.1080/1057610X.2017.1284447.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eid, M., ed. 2014. Exchanging Terrorism Oxygen for Media Airwaves: The Age of Terroredia. Hershey, PA: IGI Global.
   Google Scholar
• Ellegaard, C., and I. Boddum. 2012. “Soloterroris.” Jyllands-Posten, 25 April 2012.
   Google Scholar
• Ellegaard, C., and M. B. Broberg. 2011. “Truslen Fra Ekstremisterne.” Jyllands-Posten, 18 November 2011.
   Google Scholar
• Ellis, C., R. Pantucci, J. D. R. van Zuijdewijn, E. Bakker, B. Gomis, S. Palombi, and M. Smith. 2016. Lone-Actor Terrorism. Final Report. London: Royal United Services Institute for Defence and Security Studies.
   Google Scholar
• Feldman, M. 2013. “Comparative Lone Wolf Terrorism: Toward a Heuristic Definition.” Democracy and Security 9 (3): 270–286. doi:10.1080/17419166.2013.792252.
   Google Scholar
• Gartenstein-Ross, D., N. Barr, and B. Moreng; International Centre for Counter-Terrorism. 2016. The Islamic State’s Global Propaganda Strategy. The Hague: ICCT, International Centre for Counter-Terrorism.
   Google Scholar
• Gill, P. 2015. Lone-Actor Terrorists: A Behavioural Analysis. Abingdon: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Gill, P., J. Horgan, and P. Deckert. 2014. “Bombing Alone: Tracing the Motivations and Antecedent Behaviors of Lone-Actor Terrorists.” Journal of Forensic Sciences 59 (2): 425–435. doi:10.1111/1556-4029.12312.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gordon, T., Y. Sharan, and E. Florescu. 2015. “Prospects for Lone Wolf and SIMAD Terrorism.” Technological Forecasting and Social Change 95: 234–251. doi:10.1016/j.techfore.2015.01.013.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenslade, R. 2005. Seeking Scapegoats: The Coverage of Asylum in the UK Press. Vol. 5. The Hague: Institute for Public Policy Research.
   Google Scholar
• Gurski, P. 2016. How Islamophobia Makes Us Less Safe. The Hague: International Centre for Counter-Terrorism. 2nd February accessed. https://icct.nl/publication/how-islamophobia-makes-us-less-safe/.
   Google Scholar
• Greenwood C., C. Gysin, and N. Fagge N. 2011. “Did Maniac Plot His Gun Rampage in Britain?.” Daily Mail, July 25.
   Google Scholar
• Hackett, Conrad, et al. 2017. Europe’s Growing Muslim Population. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center.
   Google Scholar
• Hamm, M. S., and R. Spaaij. 2017a.  “Media, Popular Culture and the Lone Wolf Terrorist: The Evolution of Targeting, Tactics and Violent Ideologies.” In Routledge International Handbook of Visual Criminology, edited by E. Carrabine and M. Brown, 177–189. Abingdon: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Hamm, M. S., and R. Spaaij. 2017b. Age of Lone Wolf Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hanrahan, M. 2017. “Number of Fatal Terrorist Attacks in Western Europe Increasing, Data Show.” Reuters, 12 July. Accessed16/01/2018. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-europe-attacks/number-of-fatal-terrorist-attacks-in-western-europe-increasing-data-show-idUSKBN19X1QO.
   Google Scholar
• Haroro, I. J. 2017. “Media as Amplifier or Disrupter of Violent Extremist Propaganda: A Presentation.” In The Judicial Response to Terrorism and the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the EU: Media Treatment of Terrorism Cases. Paris. 16 June. The Hague: International Centre for Counter-Terrorism.
   Google Scholar
• Haslund, E. A., and J. B. Nielsen. 2011. “PET Vil Øge Overvågning Af Ekstemister.” Berlingske, 18 November 2011.
   Google Scholar
• Hoffman, B. 2006. Inside Terrorism. Rev. ed. NY: Columbia University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hughes, S. 2011. “14.Youngest Victim of the Nazi Monster; Family Tell of Torment.” Daily Star, 29 July 2011, 1, News.
   Google Scholar
• Innes, M., C. Roberts, A. Preece, and D. Rogers. 2016. “Ten “Rs” of Social Reaction: Using Social Media to Analyse the “Post-Event” Impacts of the Murder of Lee Rigby.” Terrorism and Political Violence 30 (3): 454–474. doi:10.1080/09546553.2016.1180289.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson, R. 2007. “Constructing enemies:‘Islamic Terrorism’in Political and Academic Discourse.” Government and Opposition 42 (3): 394–426. doi:10.1111/j.1477-7053.2007.00229.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janos, T. 2015. “Moving Images: A Systematic Analysis on the Media Representation of Muslims in Recent Sociological Research.” Informacios Tarsadalom 15 (3): 18–40.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karker, A. 2012. “Terrorist-Jagt På Internettet.” BT, 18 January 2012.
   Google Scholar
• Kearns, E. M., A. E. Betus, and A. F. Lemieux. forthcoming. “Why Do Some Terrorist Attacks Receive More Media Attention Than Others?” Justice Quarterly.
   Google Scholar
• Khiabany, G., and M. Williamson. 2012. “Terror, Culture and Anti-Muslim Racism.” In Media and Terrorism: Global Perspectives, edited by D. T. Freedman and D. Kishan, 134–150. London: Taylor & Francis.
   Google Scholar
• Kirkup, J. 2012. “Extra 1,200 Armed Forces Make Our Venues Even Safer, Says Locog.” The Daily Telegraph, 25 July 2012, 6.
   Google Scholar
• Lewis, M. 2005. Asylum: Understanding Public Attitudes. London: Institute for Public Policy Research.
   Google Scholar
• Lichfield, J. 2014. France ‘Terrorism’: Three ‘Lone Wolf’ Attacks in Three Days – So Should the Country Be Worried? The Independent. Accessed 17 January 2018.
   Google Scholar
• Lim, S. 2016. “The Contested Ethics of Mainstream Reporting of Terrorism in the Social Media Age.” Auckland UL Reviews 22: 249.
   Google Scholar
• MacDougall, D. 2012. “Have 60 al-Qaeda Brits Got Olympics in Their Sights?” The Sun, 23 February 2012, 2, News.
   Google Scholar
• Martin, A. 2015. “LONE WOLF FANATIC SWORE ALLEGIANCE to IS on FACEBOOK MOMENTS before DENMARK HORROR.” Daily Mail.
   Google Scholar
• McCauley, C., and S. Moskalenko. 2014. “Toward a Profile of Lone Wolf Terrorists: What Moves an Individual from Radical Opinion to Radical Action.” Terrorism and Political Violence 26 (1): 69–85. doi:10.1080/09546553.2014.849916.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michael, G. 2014. “Counterinsurgency and Lone Wolf Terrorism.” Terrorism and Political Violence 26 (1): 45–57. doi:10.1080/09546553.2014.849912.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morsi, Y. 2014. “Before He Flew the Black Flag, Monis was just a Desperate Man with a Violent Past.” The Guardian, December 16.
   Google Scholar
• Myers, R., and T. Pettifor. 2013. “Killing of Lee Rigby: Terror Alert UK Faces a Hidden Radicalised Army, Warns Senior Cop.” Daily Mirror, 20 December 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Nacos, B. L. 2002. Mass-Mediated Terrorism: The Central Role of the Media in Terrorism and Counterterrorism. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.
   Google Scholar
• Nissen, S., Louise, and J. A. Bjørnager. 2015. “København Oplever Flere Radikaliserede Unge.” Berlingske, 1 February 2015.
   Google Scholar
• Norris, P., M. Kern, and M. R. Just, eds. 2003. Framing Terrorism: The News Media, the Government, and the Public. London: Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• O’Neill, S., and D. San. 2013. “Terror Alert Issued over ‘Lone Wolves’ on Far Right.” The Times, 22 October 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Pantucci, R., C. Ellis, and L. Chaplais. 2016. Lone Actor Terrorism: Literature Review. London: RUSI.
   Google Scholar
• Papacharissi, Z., and M. De Fatima Oliveira. 2008. “News Frames Terrorism: A Comparative Analysis of Frames Employed in Terrorism Coverage in U.S. And U.K. Newspapers.” The International Journal of Press/Politics 13 (1): 52–74. doi:10.1177/1940161207312676.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parker, D., J. M. Pearce, L. Lindekilde, and M. Brooke Rogers. 2017. “Challenges for Effective Counterterrorism Communication: Practitioner Insights and Policy Implications for Preventing Radicalization, Disrupting Attack Planning, and Mitigating Terrorist Attacks.” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 1–28. doi:10.1080/1057610X.2017.1373427.
   Google Scholar
• Penketh, A. 2014. “Man Held over Killings at Jewish Museum in Brussels Fought with Ji-Hadists in Syria.” The Guardian, 2 June 2014, 1, Guardian International Pages.
   Google Scholar
• Perry, S., B. Hasisi, and G. Perry. 2017. “Who Is the Lone Terrorist? A Study of Vehicle-Borne Attackers in Israel and the West Bank.” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 1–15. doi:10.1080/1057610X.2017.1348101.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pundik, H. 2015. “Frygten for Den Ensomme Ulv.” Politiken, 22 February 2015.
   Google Scholar
• Reed, A. G., and H. J. Ingram. 2017. Exploring the Role of Instructional Material in AQAP’s Inspire and ISIS’Rumiyah. The Hague: Europol.
   Google Scholar
• Richardson, J. E. 2009. “‘Get Shot of the Lot of Them’: Election Reporting of Muslims in British Newspapers.” Patterns of Prejudice 43 (3–4): 355–377. doi:10.1080/00313220903109276.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmid, A. P. 1989. “Terrorism and the Media: The Ethics of Publicity*.” Terrorism and Political Violence 1 (4): 539–565. doi:10.1080/09546558908427042.
   Google Scholar
• Schomerus, G., S. Stolzenburg, A. Bauch, S. Speerforck, D. Janowitz, and M. C. Angermeyer. 2017. “Shifting Blame? Impact of Reports of Violence and Mental Illness in the Context of Terrorism on Population Attitudes Towards Persons with Mental Illness in Germany.” Psychiatry Research 252: 164–168. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2017.02.053.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schuurman, B., L. Lindekilde, S. Malthaner, F. O’Connor, P. Gill, and N. Bouhana. 2017. “End of the Lone Wolf: The Typology that Should Not Have Been.” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism. doi:10.1080/1057610X.2017.1419554.
   Google Scholar
• Shehabat, A., T. Mitew, and Y. Alzoubi. 2017. “Encrypted Jihad: Investigating the Role of Telegram App in Lone Wolf Attacks in the West.” Journal of Strategic Security 10 (3): 3. doi:10.5038/1944-0472.10.3.1604.
   Google Scholar
• Sheikh, J. 2015. “Nyt Fokus På Fremmedkrigeres Psykiske Lidelser.” Politiken, 13 February 2015.
   Google Scholar
• Silverman, D. 2001. Interpreting Qualitative Data: Methods for Analysing Talk, Text and Interaction. 2 ed. London: Sage Publications .
   Google Scholar
• Simon, J. 2015. “Lone Wolf Terrorism: Understanding the Growing Threat.” In Lone Actors–An Emerging Security Threat, edited by A. Richman and Y. Sharan, 3–10. Amsterdam: IOS Press.
   Google Scholar
• Slack, J., and C. Greenwood. 2014. “Jihadi Attacks on UK Inevitable.” Daily Mail, 24 November 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Slone, M., and A. Shoshani. 2006. “Evaluation of Preparatory Measures for Coping with Anxiety Raised by Media Coverage of Terrorism.” Journal of Counseling Psychology 53 (4): 535. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.53.4.535.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Søndergaard, B. 2011. “Den Moderne Terrorist Er En Frustreret Ung Mand.” Kristeligt Dagblad, 9 November 2011.
   Google Scholar
• Spaaij, R. 2011. Understanding Lone Wolf Terrorism: Global Patterns Motivations and Prevention. Dordrecht: Springer Science & Business Media.
   Google Scholar
• Spencer, A. 2012. “The Social Construction of Terrorism: Media, Metaphors and Policy Implications.” Journal of International Relations and Development 15 (3): 393–419. doi:10.1057/jird.2012.4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spencer, A. 2017. “Terrorism and the News Media: Symbiosis, Control and Framing.” In The Palgrave Handbook of Security, Risk and Intelligence, edited by R. Dover, H. Dylan, and M. S. Goodman, 443–460. London: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Steele, R. R., D. R. Rovenpor, B. Lickel, and T. F. Denson. 2017. “Emotion Regulation and Prejudice Reduction following Acute Terrorist Events: The Impact of Reflection before and after the Boston Marathon Bombings.” Group Processes & Intergroup Relations.
   Google Scholar
• Sullivan, M. 2010. “Primed to Kill by the Jet Ink Bomber.” The Sun, 3 November 2010, 2, News.
   Google Scholar
• Tamul, D. J., and N. I. Martínez-Carrillo. 2018. ““Ample Sample? an Examination of the Representativeness of Themes between Sampling Durations Generated from Keyword Searches for 12 Months of Immigration News from LexisNexis and NewspaperWebsites.” Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 95 (1): 96–121. doi:10.1177/1077699016681466.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• 2011. “Threat of ‘Lone-Wolf’ Avengers.” The Sun, 3 May 2011, 1, News.
   Google Scholar
• Travis, A. 2017. “Anti-Muslim Hate Crime Surges after Manchester and London Bridge Attacks.” The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/society/2017/jun/20/anti-muslim-hate-surges-after-manchester-and-london-bridge-attacks.
   Google Scholar
• Vidino, L., F. Marone, and E. Entenmann. 2017. Fear Thy Neighbor: Radicalization and Jihadist Attacks in the West. Milan: Ledizioni.
   Google Scholar
• Weaver, D. A., and B. Bimber. 2008. “Finding News Stories: A Comparison of Searches Using Lexisnexis and Google News.” Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly 85 (3): 16. doi:10.1177/107769900808500303.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weichardt, B. 2015. “Eksperter Bekymrede over Regeringens Terrorpakke.” Kristeligt Dagblad, 20 February 2015.
   Google Scholar
• Whitehead, T. 2013. “New Threat to Britain: Lone Wolves under the MI5 Radar.” The Daily Telegraph, 23 May 2013, 2, News.
   Google Scholar
• Whitehead, T., and H. Dixon. 2013. “We Cannot Stop Lone Wolves; ‘You’d like to See the Same Thing Happen to Them’.” The Daily Telegraph, 20 December, 1, News. Accessed 4 April 2018.
   Google Scholar
• Wilkinson, P. 1997. “The Media and Terrorism: A Reassessment.” Terrorism and Political Violence 9 (2): 51–64. doi:10.1080/09546559708427402.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilkinson, P. 2011. Terrorism versus Democracy: The Liberal State Response. Abingdon: Taylor & Francis.
   Google Scholar
• Winter, C. 2017. Media Jihad: Islamic State’s Doctrine for Information Warfare. London: International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation and Political Violence.
   Google Scholar
• Wintour, P., and V. Dodd. 2014. “Sydney-Style Terror Attack Could Happen in UK at Any Time, Says David Cameron.” The Guardian, 16 December 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Woods, J. 2007. “What We Talk about When We Talk about Terrorism: Elite Press Coverage of Terrorism Risk from 1997 to 2005.” Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics 12 (3): 3–20. doi:10.1177/1081180X07302064.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar