Somatic symptoms in a community sample of Ethiopian immigrants in Toronto, Canada

References

• American Psychiatric Association . 1994 . Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders , 4th ed. . Washington, DC : Author .
   Google Scholar
• Aragona , M. , Tarsitani , L. , Colosimo , F. , Martinelli , B. , Raad , H. Maisano , B. 2005 . Somatization in primary care: A comparative survey of immigrants from various ethnic groups in Rome, Italy . International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine , 35 ( 3 ) : 241 – 248 .
   Google Scholar
• Barsky , A.J. , Orav , E.J. and Bates , D.W. 2005 . Somatization increases medical utilization and costs independent of psychiatric and medical co-morbidity . Archives of General Psychiatry , 62 : 903 – 910 .
   Google Scholar
• Baruffol , E. and Thilmany , M.C. 1993 . Anxiety, depression, somatization and alcohol abuse: Prevalence rates in a general Belgian community sample . Acta Psychiatrica Belgica , 93 ( 3 ) : 136 – 153 .
   Google Scholar
• Boehnlein , J.K. and Kinzie , J.D. 1995 . Refugee trauma . Trans-cultural Psychiatric Research Review , 32 : 223 – 252 .
   Google Scholar
• Citizenship and Immigration Canada . 1999 . Citizenship and immigration statistics, 1996 . Ottawa, ON : Ministry of Public Works and Government Services Canada .
   Google Scholar
• de Gruy , F. , Columbia , L. and Dickinson , P. 1987 . Somatization disorder in a family practice . Journal of Family Practice , 25 ( 1 ) : 45 – 51 .
   Google Scholar
• Escobar , J.I. , Burnam , M.A. , Karno , M. , Forsythe , A. and Golding , J.M. 1987 . Somatization in the community . Archives of General Psychiatry , 44 ( 8 ) : 713 – 718 .
   Google Scholar
• Escobar , J.I. , Gara , M. , Silver , R.C. , Waitzkin , H. , Holman , A. and Compton , W. 1998 . Somatisation disorder in primary care . British Journal of Psychiatry , 173 : 262 – 266 .
   Google Scholar
• Escobar , J.I. , Rubio-Stipec , M. , Canino , G. and Karno , M. 1989 . Somatic Symptom Index (SSI): A new and abridged somatization construct: Prevalence and epidemiological correlates in two large community samples . Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 177 ( 3 ) : 140 – 146 .
   Google Scholar
• Ethiopian Association in Toronto. 2008 . About the association . Retrieved February 12, 2009, from http://www.ethiocommun.org
   Google Scholar
• Feder , A. , Olfson , M. , Gameroff , M. , Fuentes , M. , Shea , S. Lantigua , R.A. 2001 . Medically unexplained symptoms in an urban general medicine practice . Psychosomatics , 42 ( 3 ) : 261 – 268 .
   Google Scholar
• Fenta , H. , Hyman , I. and Noh , S. 2004 . Determinants of depression among Ethiopian immigrants and refugees in Toronto . Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 192 ( 5 ) : 363 – 372 .
   Google Scholar
• Fenta , H. , Hyman , I. and Noh , S. 2006 . Mental health service utilization by Ethiopian immigrants and refugees in Toronto . Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 194 ( 12 ) : 925 – 934 .
   Google Scholar
• Fink , P. 1992 . The use of hospitalizations by persistent somatizing patients . Psychological Medicine , 22 ( 1 ) : 73 – 180 .
   Google Scholar
• George , U. and Mwarigha , MS. 1999 . Consultation on settlement programming for African newcomers: Final report , Toronto, , Canada : University of Toronto, Center for Applied Social Research .
   Google Scholar
• Greene , J.W. , Walker , L.S. , Hickson , G. and Thompson , J. 1985 . Stressful life events and somatic complaints in adolescents . Pediatrics , 75 ( 1 ) : 19 – 22 .
   Google Scholar
• Gureje , O. , Simon , G.E. , Ustun , T.B. and Goldberg , D.P. 1997 . Somatization in cross-cultural perspective: A World Health Organization study in primary care . American Journal of Psychiatry , 154 ( 7 ) : 989 – 995 .
   Google Scholar
• Haug , T.T , Mykletun , A. and Dahl , A.A. 2004 . The association between anxiety, depression and somatic symptoms in a large population: The HUNT-II study . Psychosomatic Medicine , 66 ( 6 ) : 845 – 851 .
   Google Scholar
• Henningsen , P. , Zimmermann , T. and Sattel , H. 2003 . Medically unexplained physical symptoms, anxiety and depression: A meta-analytic review . Psychosomatic Medicine , 65 ( 4 ) : 528 – 533 .
   Google Scholar
• Hsu , L.K. and Folstein , M.F. 1997 . Somatoform disorders in Caucasian and Chinese Americans . Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 185 ( 6 ) : 382 – 387 .
   Google Scholar
• Isaac , M. , Janca , A. and Orley , J. 1996 . Somatization: A cultural-bound or universal syndrome? . Journal of Mental Health , 5 ( 30 ) : 219 – 222 .
   Google Scholar
• Katon , W. , Lin , E. , Von Korff , M. , Russo , J. , Lipscomb , P. and Bush , T. 1991 . Somatization: A spectrum of severity . American Journal of Psychiatry , 148 ( 1 ) : 34 – 40 .
   Google Scholar
• Kawanishi , Y. 1992 . Somatization of Asians: An artifact of medicalization? . Transcultural PsychiatricResearch Review , 29 : 5 – 56 .
   Google Scholar
• Kinzie , J.D. , Sack , W.H. , Angell , R.H and Manson , S. 1986 . The psychiatric effects of massive trauma on Cambodian children. Part I: The children . Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry , 25 ( 3 ) : 370 – 376 .
   Google Scholar
• Kirmayer , L.J. 2001 . Cultural variations in the clinical presentation of depression and anxiety: Implications for diagnosis and treatment . Journal of Clinical Psychiatry , 62 ( Suppl. 13 ) : 22 – 30 .
   Google Scholar
• Kirmayer , L.J. and Young , A. 1998 . Culture and somatization: Clinical, epidemiological and ethnographic perspectives . Psychosomatic Medicine , 60 ( 4 ) : 420 – 430 .
   Google Scholar
• Kleinman , A. 1982 . Neurasthenia and depression: A study of somatization and culture in China. Culture . Medicine and Psychiatry , 6 ( 2 ) : 117 – 190 .
   Google Scholar
• Kohn , R. , Flaherty , J.A. and Levav , I. 1989 . Somatic symptoms among older Soviet immigrants: An exploratory study . International Journal of Social Psychiatry , 35 ( 4 ) : 350 – 360 .
   Google Scholar
• Kroenke , K. , Jackson , J.L. and Chamberlin , J. 1997 . Depressive and anxiety disorders in patients presenting with physical complaints: Clinical predictors and outcome . American Journal of Medicine , 103 ( 5 ) : 339 – 347 .
   Google Scholar
• Kroenke , K. and Price , R.K. 1993 . Symptoms in the community: Prevalence, classification and psychiatric comorbidity . Archives of Internal Medicine , 153 ( 21 ) : 2474 – 2480 .
   Google Scholar
• Kroenke , K. , Spitzer , R.L. , Williams , J.B. , Linzer , M. , Hahn , S.R. , et al. 1994 . Physical symptoms in primary care: Predictors of psychiatric disorders and functional impairment . Archives of Family Medicine , 3 9 , 774 779 .
   Google Scholar
• Kroenke , K. and Spitzer , R.L. 1998 . Gender differences in the reporting of physical and somatoform symptoms . Psychosomatic Medicine , 60 ( 2 ) : 150 – 155 .
   Google Scholar
• Labott , S.M. , Preisman , R.C. , Torosian , T. , Popovich , J. Jr. and Iannuzzi , M.C. 1996 . Screening for somatizing patients in the pulmonary subspecialty clinic . Psychosomatics , 37 ( 4 ) : 327 – 338 .
   Google Scholar
• Ladwig , K.H. , Marten-Mittag , B. , Erazo , N. and Gundel , H. 2001 . Identifying somatization disorder in a population-based health examination survey: Psychosocial burden and gender differences . Psychosomatics , 42 ( 6 ) : 511 – 518 .
   Google Scholar
• Lambo , T.A. 1956 . Neuropsychiatric observations in the western region of Nigeria . British Medical Journal , 44 : 1388 – 1394 .
   Google Scholar
• Lipowski , Z.J. 1988 . Somatization: The concept and its clinical application . American Journal of Psychiatry , 145 ( 11 ) : 1358 – 1368 .
   Google Scholar
• Mak , W.W. and Zane , N.W. 2004 . The phenomenon of somatization among community Chinese Americans . Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology , 39 ( 12 ) : 967 – 974 .
   Google Scholar
• McCahill , M.E. 1995 . Somatoform and related disorders: Delivery of diagnosis as first step . American Family Physician , 52 ( 1 ) : 193 – 204 .
   Google Scholar
• Mcspadden , L. and Moussa , H. 1993 . I have a name: The gender dynamics in asylum and in resettlement of Ethiopian and Eritrean refugees in North America . Journal of Refugee Studies , 6 ( 3 ) : 204 – 225 .
   Google Scholar
• Mezzich , J.E. and Raab , E.S. 1980 . Depressive symptomatology across the Americas . Archives of General Psychiatry , 37 ( 7 ) : 818 – 823 .
   Google Scholar
• Morakinyo , O. 1983 . A phenomenological study of functional abnormal bodily sensations in African psychiatric patients . Psychopathologie Africaine , 19 : 343 – 355 .
   Google Scholar
• Neki , J.S. 1973 . Psychiatry in Southeast Asia . British Journal of Psychiatry , 123 ( 574 ) : 257 – 269 .
   Google Scholar
• Nimnuan , C. , Hotopf , M. and Wessely , S. 2001 . Medically unexplained symptoms: An epidemiological study in seven specialties . Journal of Psychosomatic Research , 51 ( 1 ) : 361 – 367 .
   Google Scholar
• Noh , S. , Beiser , M. and Kaspar , V. 1999 . Perceived discrimination, depression and coping: A study of Southeast Asian refugees in Canada . Journal of Health and Social Behavior , 40 ( 3 ) : 193 – 207 .
   Google Scholar
• Noh , S. and Kaspar , V. 2003 . Perceived discrimination and depression: Moderating effects of coping, acculturation and ethnic support . American Journal of Public Health , 93 ( 2 ) : 232 – 238 .
   Google Scholar
• Noyes , R. Jr. , Holt , C.S. and Kathol , R.G. 1995 . Somatization: Diagnosis and management . Archives of Family Medicine , 4 ( 9 ) : 790 – 795 .
   Google Scholar
• Ohaeri , J.U. and Odejide , O.A. 1994 . Somatization symptoms among patients using primary healthcare facilities in a rural community in Nigeria . American Journal of Psychiatry , 151 ( 5 ) : 728 – 731 .
   Google Scholar
• Olatawura , M.O. 1973 . The problem of diagnosing depression in Africa . Psychopatologie Africaine , 9 : 389 – 403 .
   Google Scholar
• Ornstein , M. 2000 . Ethno-racial inequality in the city of Toronto: Analysis of the 1996 census , Toronto, , Canada : York University, Institute for Social Research .
   Google Scholar
• Pang , K.Y. and Lee , M.H. 1994 . Prevalence of depression and somatic symptoms among Korean elderly immigrants . Yonsei Medical Journal , 35 ( 2 ) : 155 – 161 .
   Google Scholar
• Paykel , E.S. , Prusoff , B.A. and Uhlenhuth , E.H. 1971 . Scaling life events . Archives of General Psychiatry , 25 : 340 – 347 .
   Google Scholar
• Phinney , J.S. and Chavira , V. 1992 . Ethnic identity and self-esteem: An explanatory longitudinal study . Journal of Adolescence , 15 ( 3 ) : 271 – 281 .
   Google Scholar
• Reitz , J.G. and Lum , J.M. 2006 . “ Immigration and diversity in a changing Canadian city: Social bases of inter-group relations in Toronto ” . In Inside the mosaic , Edited by: Fong , E. 15 – 20 . Toronto : University of Toronto Press .
   Google Scholar
• Ritsner , M. , Ponizovsky , A. , Kurs , R. and Modai , I. 2000 . Somatization in an immigrant population in Israel: A community survey of prevalence, risk factors and help-seeking behavior . American Journal of Psychiatry , 157 ( 3 ) : 385 – 392 .
   Google Scholar
• Robinson , D.P. , Greene , J.W. and Walker , L.S. 1988 . Functional somatic complaints in adolescents: Relationship to negative life events, self-concept and family characteristics . Journal of Pediatrics , 113 ( 3 ) : 588 – 593 .
   Google Scholar
• Russo , J. , Katon , W. , Sullivan , M. , Clark , M. and Buchwald , D. 1994 . Severity of somatisation and its relationship to psychiatric disorders and personality . Psychosomatics , 35 ( 6 ) : 546 – 556 .
   Google Scholar
• Simon , G.E. and Von Korff , M. 1991 . Somatization and psychiatric disorder in the NIMH Epidemiologic Catchment Area study . American Journal of Psychiatry , 148 ( 11 ) : 1494 – 1500 .
   Google Scholar
• Simon , G.E. , Von Korff , M. , Piccinelli , M. , Fullerton , C. and Ormel , J. 1999 . An international study of the relation between somatic symptoms and depression . New England Journal of Medicine , 341 ( 18 ) : 1329 – 1335 .
   Google Scholar
• Singh , H. , Soni , P.K. , Gill , P.J. and Kaur , L. 1991 . Stressful family life events and nonspecific somatic complaints in school children . Indian Pediatrics , 28 ( 12 ) : 1483 – 1487 .
   Google Scholar
• Statistics Canada . 2006 . 2006 Census of Canada topic based tabulations, ethnic origin, single and multiple ethnic origin responses and sex for the population of Canada, provinces, territories, census metropolitan areas and census agglomerations, 2006 census . (Catalogue number 97-562-XCB2006006). Retrieved September 8, 2008, from http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/topics/ListProducts.cfm?Temporal=2006&APATH=3&THEME=80&FREE=0&GRP=1
   Google Scholar
• Swartz , M. , Hughes , D. , George , L. , Blazer , D. , Landerman , R. and Bucholz , K. 1986 . Developing screening index for community studies of somatization disorder . Journal of Psychiatric Research , 20 ( 4 ) : 335 – 343 .
   Google Scholar
• Swartz , M. , Landerman , R. , George , L.K. , Blazer , D.G. and Escobar , J. 1991 . “ Somatization disorders ” . In Psychiatric disorders in America: The Epidemiologic Catchment Area Study , Edited by: Robins , L.N. and Regier , D.A. 220 – 257 . New York : Free Press .
   Google Scholar
• Walker , L.S. and Greene , J.W. 1991 . Negative life events and symptom resolution in pediatric abdominal pain patients . Journal of Pediatric Psychology , 16 ( 3 ) : 341 – 360 .
   Google Scholar
• Westermeyer , J. , Bouafuely , M. , Neider , J. and Callies , A. 1989 . Somatization among refugees: An epidemiologic study . Psychosomatics , 30 ( 1 ) : 34 – 43 .
   Google Scholar
• Wolchik , S.A. , Beals , J. and Sandler , I. 1989 . “ Mapping children's support networks: Conceptual and methodological issues ” . In Children's social networks and social support: Wiley series on personality processes , Edited by: Belle , D. 191 – 220 . New York : John Wiley & Sons .
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization . 1997 . Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI) core version 2.1. Lifetime version . Retrieved May 5, 1999, from http://www.who.int/msa/cidi .
   Google Scholar