What collective? Collectivism and relationalism from a Chinese perspective

References

• Abbott , K.A. 1970 . Harmony and individualism: Changing Chinese psychosocial functioning in Taipei and San Francisco , Taipei, Taiwan : Orient Cultural Service .
   Google Scholar
• Abrams , D. , Ando , K. and Hinkle , S. 1998 . Psychological attachment to the group: Cross-cultural differences in organizational identification and subjective norms as predictors of workers’ turnover intentions . Personality and Psychology Bulletin , 24 : 1027 – 1039 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Argyle , M. , Henderson , M. , Bond , M. , Iizuka , Y. and Contarello , A. 1986 . Cross-cultural variations in relationship rules . International Journal of Psychology , 21 ( 3 ) : 287 – 315 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bae , J.H. and Koo , J. 2008 . Information loss, knowledge transfer cost and the value of social relations . Strategic Organization , 6 ( 3 ) : 227 – 258 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnes , S.X.D. 1998 . Individualism-Collectivism and ego development: A study of the Chinese culture . Bell & Howell Information and Learning Company
   Google Scholar
• Benedict , R. 1946 . The chrysanthemum and the sword: Patterns of Japanese culture , Boston : Houghton Mifflin .
   Google Scholar
• Bond , M.H. 1994 . “ Into the heart of collectivism: A personal and scientific journey ” . In Individualism and collectivism: Theories, method, and applications , Edited by: Kim , U. , Trandis , H.C. , Kagitcibasi , C. , Choi , S. and Yoon , G. 66 – 76 . Thousand Oaks, CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Bond , M.H. 2002 . Reclaiming the individual from Hofstede's ecological analysis: A 20-year odyssey: Comment on Oyserman et al . Psychological Bulletin , 128 : 73 – 77 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brett , J.M. , Tinsley , C.H. , Janssens , M. , Barsness , Z.I. and Lytle , A.L. 1997 . “ New approach to the study of culture in industry/organizational psychology ” . In New perspectives on international industrial/organizational psychology , Edited by: Earley , P.C. and Erez , M. 75 – 129 . San Francisco : The New Lexington Press .
   Google Scholar
• Brewer , M.B. and Chen , Y.R. 2007 . Where (Who) are collectivism? Toward conceptual clarification of individualism and collectivism . Psychological Review , 114 ( 1 ) : 133 – 151 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewer , M.B. and Gardner , W. 1996 . Who is this “We”? Levels of collective identity and self representations . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 71 ( 1 ) : 83 – 93 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burleson , B.R. and Mortenson , S.R. 2003 . Explaining cultural differences in evaluations of emotional support behaviors: Exploring the mediating influences of value systems and interaction goals . Communication Research , 30 ( 2 ) : 113 – 146 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen , C.L. and Easterby-Smith , M. 2008 . Is guanxi still working, while Chinese MNCs go global: The case of Taiwanese MNCs in the UK . Human Systems Management , 27 : 131 – 142 .
   Google Scholar
• Chen , G.M. and Chung , J. 1994 . The impact of Confucianism on organizational communication . Communication Quarterly , 42 ( 2 ) : 93 – 105 .
   Google Scholar
• Chen , X.P. and Chen , C.C. 2004 . On the intricacies of the Chinese guanxi: A process model of guanxi development . Asia Pacific Journal of Management , 21 : 305 – 324 .
   Google Scholar
• Cheng , B.S. 1995 . Differential mode of association and Chinese organizational behavior . Indigenous Psychology Research , 3 : 142 – 219 . (In Chinese)
   Google Scholar
• Cheng , B.S. , Hsieh , P.Y. and Chou , L.F. 2002 . A study of principal leadership style, subordinate-superior relation quality, and behavior unrelated to roles: Style transformation and the effect of parental leadership . Indigenous Psychology Research , 17 : 105 – 161 . (In Chinese)
   Google Scholar
• Chi , L. 2003 . Individualism, collectivism and familism: Conceptualizing a triangular relationship . Social Education Journal of the Taipei Municipal Normal University , 2 : 115 – 145 . (In Chinese)
   Google Scholar
• Chow , C.L. 1995 . In between new and traditional thinking: Selected works of May Fourth Movement , Taipei, Taiwan : Chinese Times . (In Chinese)
   Google Scholar
• Chow , I.H. and Ng , I. 2004 . The characteristics of Chinese personal ties (guanxi): Evidence from Hong Kong . Organization Studies , 25 ( 7 ) : 1075 – 1093 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark , M.S. and Mills , J. 1979 . Interpersonal attraction in exchange and communal relationships . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 37 : 12 – 24 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Confucious . 1959 . The great learning (Trans. J. Legge) Taipei: Ching-Wei.
   Google Scholar
• Dunning , J.H. and Kim , C. 2007 . The cultural roots of guanxi: An exploratory study . The World Economy , 30 ( 2 ) : 329 – 341 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Durkheim , E. 1964 . The division of labor in society , (G. Simpson, Trans.) Glencoe, IL : Free Press . (Original work published 1893)
   Google Scholar
• Emerson , R.M. 1981 . “ Social exchange ” . In Social psychology: Sociological perspectives , Edited by: Rosenberg , M. and Turner , R. 30 – 65 . New York : Basic Books .
   Google Scholar
• Ezioni , A. 1968 . The active society: A theory of societal and political processes , New York : Free Press .
   Google Scholar
• Farh , J.L. , Tsui , A.S. , Xin , K.R. and Cheng , B.S. 1998 . The influence of relational demography and guanxi: The Chinese case . Organization Science , 9 : 471 – 487 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fei , X.-T. 1993 . Rural China and rural reconstruction , Taipei, Taiwan : Strom & Stress Publishing . (In Chinese)
   Google Scholar
• Feng , Y.L. 1991a . The history of Chinese philosophy in China (new edition) , Vol. 1 , Taipei, Taiwan : Random . (In Chinese)
   Google Scholar
• Feng , Y.L. 1991b . The history of Chinese philosophy in China (new edition) , Vol. 1 , Taipei, Taiwan : Random . (In Chinese)
   Google Scholar
• Fischer , R. , Ferreira , M. , Assmar , E. , Redford , P. , Harb , C. and Glazer , S. 2009 . Individualism-collectivism as descriptive norms: Development of a subjective norm approach to culture measurement . Journal of Cross-cultural Psychology , 40 ( 2 ) : 187 – 213 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fiske , A.P. 1991 . Structure of social life: The four elementary forms of human relations , New York : Free Press .
   Google Scholar
• Fiske , A.P. 2002 . Using individualism and collectivism to compare culture: A critique of the validity and measurement of the constructs: Comment on Oyserman et al . Psychological Bulletin , 128 : 78 – 88 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fiske , A.P. , Kitayama , S. , Markus , H.R. and Nisbett , R.E. 1998 . “ The cultural matrix of social psychology ” . In The handbook of social psychology , Edited by: Gilbert , D.T. and Fiske , S.T. 915 – 981 . New York : McGraw-Hill .
   Google Scholar
• Gold , T. , Guthrie , D. and Wank , D. 2002 . “ An introduction to the study of guanxi ” . In Social connections in China: Institutions, culture and the changing nature of guanxi , Edited by: Gold , T. , Guthrie , D. and Wank , D. 3 – 20 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Greenberg , J. and Cohen , R.L. 1982 . “ Why justice? Normative and instrumental interpretations ” . In Equity and justice in social behavior , Edited by: Greenberg , J. and Cohen , R.L. 437 – 469 . New York : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Gudykunst , W.B. 1988 . “ Culture and intergroup process ” . In The cross-cultural challenge to social psychology , Edited by: Bond , M.H. 165 – 181 . Thousand Oaks, CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Gudykunst , W.B. , Matsumoto , Y. , Ting-Toomey , S. , Nishida , T. , Kim , K. and Heyman , S. 1996 . The influence of cultural individualism–collectivism, self-construals, and individual values on communication styles across cultures . Human Communication Research , 22 : 510 – 543 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Habermas , J. 1989 . The structural transformation of the public sphere , Cambridge, MA : MIT Press .
   Google Scholar
• Hamaguchi , E. 1977 . Nihon rashisa no saihakken (The rediscovery of Japaneseness) , Tokyo : Nihon Keizai Shinbunsha .
   Google Scholar
• Heine , S.J. 2002 . What's wrong with cross-cultural comparisons of subjective Likert scales: The reference-group effect . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 82 : 903 – 918 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ho , Y.F. and Chiu , C.Y. 1994 . “ Component ideas of individualism, collectivism, and social organization: An application in the study of Chinese culture ” . In Individualism and collectivism: Theory, method, and application , Edited by: Kim , U. , Triandis , H.C. , Kagitçibasi , C. , Choi , S.C. and Yoon , G. 137 – 156 . Thousand Oaks, CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Hofstede, G. (n.d.). Geert Hofstede™ cultural dimensions. Retrieved from http://www.geert-hofstede.com/
   Google Scholar
• Hofstede , G. 1980 . Culture's consequence: International differences in work-related values , Beverly Hills, CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Homans , G.C. 1958 . Social behavior as exchange . The American Journal of Sociology , 63 ( 6 ) : 597 – 606 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu , S. 1921 . “ The introduction of Wu Yu's paper ” . In Collection of papers , Edited by: Yu , Wu . 1 – 7 . Shanghai : Ya-Dong . (In Chinese)
   Google Scholar
• Huang , M.P. 2003 . “ Organization leadership ” . In A thirty-year review of organizational behavior research in Taiwan , Edited by: Cheng , B.S. 227 – 252 . Taipei, Taiwan : Gueiguag . (In Chinese)
   Google Scholar
• Hui , C.H. 1988 . Measurement of individualism-collectivism . Journal of Research in Personality , 22 : 17 – 36 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hwang , K.K. 1987 . Face and favor: The Chinese power game . American Journal of Sociology , 92 ( 4 ) : 945 – 974 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hwang , K.K. 2005a . Confucian relationalism: Reflections on culture and the reconstruction of paradigm , Taipei, Taiwan : National Taiwan University . (In Chinese)
   Google Scholar
• Hwang, K.K. (2005b). From “individualism vs. collectivism” to “relationalism”: The objective of indigenizing social scientific research. Unpublished paper. (In Chinese)
   Google Scholar
• Inglehart , R. 1997 . Modernization and postmodernization , Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Jacobs , B.J. 1979 . A preliminary model of particularistic ties in Chinese political alliances: Kan-cg'ing and Kuan-his in a rural Taiwanese township . The China Quarterly , 78 ( Jun. ) : 237 – 273 .
   Google Scholar
• Jin, N. (1995, September). Social identity theory and cooperation heuristic. Paper presented at the 36th annual meeting of Japanese Social Psychological Association, Tokyo, Japan.
   Google Scholar
• Kayser , E. and Schwinger , T. 1982 . A theoretical analysis of the relationship among individual justice concept, layman's psychology, and distribution decision . Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour , 12 : 47 – 51 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim , U. , Trandis , H.C. , Kagitcibasi , C. , Choi , S. and Yoon , G. 1994 . Individualism and collectivism: Theories, method, and applications , Thousand Oaks, CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Kim , M.S. , Hunter , J.E. , Miyahara , A. , Horvath , A. , Bresnahan , M. and Yoon , H.J. 1996 . Individual- vs. culture-level dimensions of individualism and collectivism: Effects on preferred conversational styles . Communication Monographs , 63 ( 1 ) : 28 – 49 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim , M.S. , Smith , D.H. and Gu , Y. 1999 . Medical decision making and Chinese patients’ self-construals . Health Communication , 11 ( 3 ) : 249 – 260 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim , U. 1994 . “ Individualism and collectivism: Conceptual clarification and elaboration ” . In Individualism and collectivism: Theory, method, and applications , Edited by: Kim , U. , Triandis , H. , Kagitcibasi , C. , Choi , S. and Yoon , G. 19 – 40 . Thousand Oaks, CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Kim, U., & Lee, S.H. (1994, June). The Confucian mode of morality, justice, selfhood and society. Paper presented at the meeting of the eighth International Conference on Korean Studies, Seoul, Korea.
   Google Scholar
• King , A. 1992 . From traditional society to modern society , Taipei, Taiwan : Chinese Times . (In Chinese)
   Google Scholar
• Kitayama , S. 2002 . Cultural and basic psychological processes – toward a system view of culture: Comment on Oyserman et al . Psychological Bulletin , 128 : 189 – 196 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kitayama , S. , Duffy , S. and Uchida , Y. 2007 . “ Self as cultural mode of being ” . In Handbook of cultural psychology , Edited by: Kitayama , S. and Cohen , D. 136 – 174 . New York : The Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Kwan , S.Y. , Bond , M.H. and Singelis , T.M. 1997 . Pancultural explanations for life satisfaction: Adding harmony to self-esteem . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 73 : 1038 – 1051 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Law , K.S. , Wong , C.S. , Wang , D. and Wang , L. 2000 . Effect of supervisor-subordinate guanxi on supervisory decisions in China: An empirical investigation . The International Journal of Human Resource Management , 11 ( 4 ) : 751 – 765 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lebra , T.S. 1976 . Japanese pattern of behavior , Honolulu, HI : University of Hawaii Press .
   Google Scholar
• Lerner , M.J. 1981 . “ The justice motive in human relations: Some thoughts on what we know and need to know about justice ” . In The justice motive in social behavior: Adapting to times of scarcity and change , Edited by: Lerner , M. and Lerner , S.C. 11 – 35 . New York : Plenum Press .
   Google Scholar
• Li , S.C. and Chi , X.R. 2004 . Upward influence strategies in organizations: Examining the differences between Western and Chinese upward influence models . Mass Communication Research , 80 : 89 – 126 . (In Chinese)
   Google Scholar
• Luo , Y. 2000 . Guanxi and business , Singapore : World Scientific .
   Google Scholar
• Ma , R. 1992 . The role of unofficial intermediaries in interpersonal conflicts in the Chinese culture . Communication Quarterly , 40 ( 3 ) : 269 – 276 .
   Google Scholar
• Ma , R. 2004 . “ Guanxi and Chinese communication behavior ” . In Theories and principles of Chinese communication , Edited by: Chen , G.M. 363 – 377 . Taipei, Taiwan : WuNan . (In Chinese)
   Google Scholar
• Ma , R. and Chuang , R. 2001 . Persuasion strategies of Chinese college students in interpersonal contexts . The Southern Communication Journal , 66 ( 4 ) : 267 – 278 .
   Google Scholar
• Macpherson , C.B. 1962 . The political theory of possessive individualism: Hobbes to Locke , Oxford : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Markus , H.R. and Kitayama , S. 1991 . Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation . Psychological Review , 98 ( 2 ) : 224 – 253 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matsumoto , D. 1999 . Culture and self: An empirical assessment of Markus and Kitayama's theory of independent and interdependent self-construals . Asian Journal of Social Psychology , 2 : 289 – 310 .
   Google Scholar
• Morling , B. and Lamoureaux , M. 2008 . Measure culture outside the head: A meta-analysis of individualism collectivism in cultural products . Personality and Social Psychology Review , 12 : 199 – 220 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakane , C. 1970 . Japanese society , Berkeley : University of California Press .
   Google Scholar
• Nee , V. 1992 . Organizational dynamics of market transition: Hybrid forms, property rights, and mixed economy in China . Administrative Science Quarterly , 37 : 1 – 27 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niles , F.S. 1998 . Individualism-Collectivism revisited . Cross-Cultural Research , 32 : 315 – 341 .
   Google Scholar
• Osigweh , C.A.B. and Huo , Y.P. 1993 . Conceptions of employee responsibilities and rights in the United States and the People's Republic of China . The International Journal of Human Resource Management , 4 ( 1 ) : 85 – 112 .
   Google Scholar
• Oyserman , D. , Coon , H.M. and Kemmelmeier , M. 2002 . Rethinking individualism and collectivism: Evaluation of theoretical assumptions and meta-analyses . Psychological Bulletin , 128 ( 1 ) : 3 – 72 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prentice , D. , Miller , D. and Lightdale , J. 1994 . Asymmetries in attachments to groups and to their members: Distinguishing between common-identity and common-bond groups . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 20 : 484 – 493 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rotenburg , M. 1977 . Alienating individualism and reciprocal individualism: A cross-culture conceptualization . The Journal of Humanistic Psychology , 17 ( 3 ) : 3 – 17 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sampson , E.E. 2001 . Reinterpreting individualism and collectivism: Their religious roots and monologic versus idalogic person-other relationship . American Psychologist , 55 : 1425 – 1432 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schimmack , U. , Oishi , S. and Diener , E. 2005 . Individualism: A valid and important dimension of cultural differences between nations . Personality & Social Psychology Review , 9 : 17 – 31 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwartz , S.H. 1990 . Individualism–collectivism: Critique and proposed refinements . Journal of Cross-Culture Psychology Bulletin , 20 : 139 – 157 .
   Google Scholar
• Seo, K.K., Miller, P.C., Schumidt, C., & Sowa, P. (2008). Creating synergy between collectivism and individualism in cyberspace: A comparison of online communication patterns between Hong Kong and U.S. students. Journal of Intercultural Communication, 18. Retrieved from http://immi.se/intercultural/nr18/kay.htm.
   Google Scholar
• Shulruf , B. , Hattie , J. and Dixon , R. 2007 . Development of a new measurement tool for individualism and collectivism . Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment , 25 : 385 – 400 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith , P.B. and Bond , M.H. 1999 . Social psychology across cultures , 2nd ed. , Boston : Ginn .
   Google Scholar
• Sun , L.J. 1990 . The deep structure of Chinese culture , Taipei, Taiwan : Tonsan . (In Chinese)
   Google Scholar
• Takano , Y. and Osaka , E. 1999 . An unsupported common view: Comparing Japan and the U.S. on individualism-collectivism . Asian Journal of Social Psychology , 2 : 311 – 341 .
   Google Scholar
• Triandis , H.C. 1989 . The Self and social behavior in differing cultural contexts . Psychological Review , 96 : 506 – 520 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Triandis , H.C. 1995 . Individualism and collectivism , Boulder, CO : Westview .
   Google Scholar
• Triandis , H.C. 2001 . Individualism-Collectivism and personality . Journal of Personality , 69 ( 6 ) : 907 – 924 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsang , E.W.K. 1998 . Can guanxi be a source of sustained competitive advantage for doing business in China? . Academy of Management Executive , 12 ( 2 ) : 64 – 73 .
   Google Scholar
• Tsui , A.S. and Farh , J.L. 1997 . Where guanxi matters: Relational demography and guanxi in the Chinese context . Work & Occupations , 24 ( 1 ) : 56 – 79 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tu , W.M. 1985 . Confucian thought: Selfhood as creative transformation , New York : State University of New York Press .
   Google Scholar
• Wasserman , S. and Faust , K. 1994 . Social network analysis: Methods and applications , New York : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Xin , K.R. 1997 . Asian American managers: An impression gap?—An investigation of impression management and supervisor-subordinate relationship . Journal of Applied Behavioral Science , 33 ( 3 ) : 335 – 355 .
   Google Scholar
• Xin , K.R. and Pearce , J.L. 1996 . Guanxi: Connections as substitutes for formal institutional support . Academy of Management Journal , 39 : 1641 – 1658 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yamagishi , T. , Nobuhito , J. and Kiyonari , T. 1999 . Bounded generalized reciprocity: In-group favoritism and in-group boasting . Advances in Group Processes , 16 : 161 – 197 .
   Google Scholar
• Yang , C.F. 1991 . “ The Chinese self: Theory and research direction ” . In The psychology of the Chinese people , Edited by: Yang , C.F. and Kao , S.R. 94 – 144 . Taipei, Taiwan : Yuan-Liou Publishing . (In Chinese)
   Google Scholar
• Yang , C.F. 2001a . “ A critical review of the conceptualization of guanxi and renqing ” . In The interpersonal relationship, affection, and trust of the Chinese: From an interactional perspective , Edited by: Yang , C.F. 3 – 26 . Taipei, Taiwan : Yuan Liou Publishing . (In Chinese)
   Google Scholar
• Yang , C.F. 2001b . “ A reconceptualization of the Chinese guanxi and renqing ” . In The interpersonal relationship, affection, and trust of the Chinese: From an interactional perspective , Edited by: Yang , C.F. 337 – 370 . Taipei, Taiwan : Yuan Liou Publishing . (In Chinese)
   Google Scholar
• Yang , K.S. 1996 . “ The psychological transformation of the Chinese people as a result of societal modernization ” . In The psychology of the Chinese people , Edited by: Bond , M.H. 479 – 498 . Hong Kong : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Yang , M.M. 1994 . Gifts, favors, and banquets: The art of social relationships in China , Ithaca, NY : Cornell University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Yang , M.M. 2002 . The resilience of guanxi and its new deployments: A critique of some new guanxi scholarship . The China Quarterly , 170 ( Jun. ) : 459 – 476 .
   Google Scholar
• Yeh , J.H. and Chen , L. 2004 . Value orientations of self-construals and argumentative behaviors in China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan . Mass Communication Research , 80 : 51 – 87 . (In Chinese)
   Google Scholar
• Yeh , R.C. 1996 . The hierarchical order of Confucianism: Inquiry to the prototype in the Pre-Ch'in , Taipei, Taiwan : Rui xing . (In Chinese)
   Google Scholar
• Yeung , I.Y. and Tung , R.L. 1996 . Achieving business success in Confucian societies: The importance of guanxi (connections) . Organizational Dynamics , 25 ( 2 ) : 54 – 65 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yu , Y.S. 1987 . Examining the modern significance of Chinese culture through its value system , Taipei, Taiwan : Chinese Times . (In Chinese)
   Google Scholar
• Yuki , M. 2003 . Intergroup comparison versus intragroup relationships: A cross-cultural examination of social identity theory in North American and East Asian cultural context . Social Psychology Quarterly , 66 ( 2 ) : 166 – 183 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yuki , M. , Maddux , W.W. , Brewer , M.B. and Takemura , K. 2005 . Cross-cultural differences in relationship- and group-based trust . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 31 : 48 – 62 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yum , J.O. 1988 . The impact of Confucianism on interpersonal relationships and communication patterns in East Asia . Communication Monographs , 55 : 374 – 388 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar