19,193
Views
32
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Grubb Review

Why is the world green? The interactions of top–down and bottom–up processes in terrestrial vegetation ecology

&
Pages 127-140 | Received 24 Sep 2015, Accepted 11 Apr 2016, Published online: 13 May 2016

References

  • Andrewartha HG. 1961. Introduction to the study of animal populations. London: Methuen and Co.
  • Aplin RT, Benn MH, Rothschild M. 1968. Poisonous alkaloids in the body tissue of the cinnabar moth (Callimorpha jacobaeae L.). Nature 219:747–748.
  • Beerling D. 2007. The emerald planet. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Berner RA. 2004. The phanerozoic carbon cycle. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Bond WJ. 2005. Large parts of the world are brown and black: a different view on the ‘green world’ hypothesis. Journal of Vegetation Science 16:261–266.
  • Bond WJ, Keeley JE. 2005. Fire as a global ‘herbivore’: the ecology and evolution of flammable ecosystems. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 20:387–394.
  • Brunsting AMH, Heil GW. 1985. The role of nutrients in the interaction between a herbivorous beetle and some competing plant species in heathlands. Oikos 44:23–26.
  • Carmona D, Lajeunesse MJ, Johnson MTJ. 2011. Plant traits that predict resistance to herbivores. Functional Ecology 25:358–367.
  • Castillo UF, Browne L, Strobel G, Hess WM, Ezra S, Pacheco G, Ezra D. 2007. Biologically active endophytic steptomycetes from Nothofagus spp and other plants in Patagonia. Microbial Ecology 53:12–19.
  • Chambers FM, Mauquoy D, Todd PA. 1999. Recent rise to dominance of Molinia caerulea in environmentally sensitive areas: new perspectives from palaeoecological data. Journal of Applied Ecology 36:719–733.
  • Codron J, Codron D, Lee-Thorp JA, Sponheimer M, Kirkman K, Duffy KJ, Sealy J. 2011. Landscape-scale feeding patterns of African elephant inferred from carbon isotope analysis of feces. Oecologia 165:89–99.
  • Crawford RMM. 1989. Studies in plant survival. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications.
  • Culham A. 2007. Mesembryanthemaceae. In: Heyword VH, Brummitt RK, Culham A, Seberg O, editors. Flowering plant families of the world. Buffalo, NY: Firefly.
  • Davidson J, Andrewartha HG. 1948. The influence of rainfall, evaporation and atmospheric temperature on fluectuations in the size of a natural population of Thrips imaginis (Thysanoptera). Journal of Animal Ecology 17:200–222.
  • Ellis WM, Keymer RJ, Jones DA. 1977. On the polymorphism of cyanogenesis in Lotus VIII Ecological studies in Anglesey. Heredity 39:45–65.
  • Elton CS. 1927. Animal ecology. London: Sidgwick and Jackson.
  • Feeny P. 1976. Plant apparency and chemical defense. Recent Advances in Phytochemistry 10:1–40.
  • Ford AT, Goheen JR, Otieno TO, Bidner L, Isbell LA, Palmer TM, Ward D, Woodroffe R, Pringle RM. 2014. Large carnivores make savannah tree communities less thorny. Science 346:346–349.
  • Frankel GS. 1959. The raison d’être of secondary plant substances. Science 129:1466–1570.
  • Freeland WJ, Janzen DH. 1974. Strategies in herbivory by mammals: the role of plant secondary compounds. The American Naturalist 108:269–289.
  • Grime JP. 2001. Plant strategies, vegetation processes, and ecosystem properties. 2nd ed. London: John Wiley.
  • Gripenberg S, Roslin T. 2007. Up or down in space? Uniting the bottom-up versus top-down paradigm and spatial ecology. Oikos 116:181–188.
  • Grubb PJ. 1992. A positive distrust in simplicity – lessons from plant defences and from competition amongst plants and animals. Journal of Ecology 80:585–610.
  • Hairston NG, Smith FE, Slobodkin LB. 1960. Community structure, population control, and competition. The American Naturalist 94:421–425.
  • Hartley SE, Jones CG. 1997. Plant chemistry and herbivory, or why is the world green? In: Crawley MJ, editor. Plant ecology. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell Science. p. 284–324.
  • Hassell MP. 1978. The dynamics of arthropod predator-prey systems. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
  • Hassell MP, Comins HN, May RM. 1994. Species coexistence and self-organizing spatial dynamics. Nature 370:290–292.
  • Hill MO, Evans DF, Bell SA. 1992. Long-term effects of excluding sheep from hill pastures in North Wales. The Journal of Ecology 80:1–13.
  • Hunter MD, Price PW. 1992. Playing chutes and ladders: bottom-up and top-down forces in natural communities. Ecology 73:724–732.
  • Jacobs SM, Naiman RJ. 2008. Large African herbivores decrease herbaceous plant biomass while increasing plant species richness in a semi-arid savanna toposequence. Journal of Arid Environments 72:891–903.
  • Janzen DH. 1975. Ecology of plants in the tropics. London: Edward Arnold.
  • Janzen DH. 1988. On the broadening of insect-plant research. Ecology 69:905.
  • Jones CG, Lawton JH. 1991. Plant chemistry and insect species richness of British umbellifers. The Journal of Animal Ecology 60:767–777.
  • Jones JDG, Dangl JL. 2006. The plant immune system. Nature 444:323–329.
  • Kant MR, Jonckheere W, Knegt B, Lemos F, Liu J, Schimmel BCJ, Villarroel CA, Ataide LMS, Dermauw W, Glas JJ, et al. 2015. Mechanisms and ecological consequences of plant defence induction and suppression in herbivore communities. Annals of Botany 115:1015–1051.
  • Kirby KJ, Morecroft MD. 2010. The flowers of the forest. In: Savill PS, Perrins CM, Kirby KJ, Fisher N, editors. Wytham Woods; Oxfords ecological laboratory. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 75–89.
  • Korner C. 2004. Through enhanced tree dynamics carbon dioxide enrichment may cause tropical forests to lose carbon. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 359:493–498.
  • Krebs CJ. 2009. Ecology. 6th ed. San Francisco (CA): Benjamin Cummings.
  • Kuiper TR, Parker DM. 2014. Elephants in Africa: Big, grey biodiversity thieves? South African Journal of Science 110:1–3. Art. #a0058. doi:10.1590/sajs.2014/a0058
  • Lawton JH, McNeill S. 1979. Between the devil and the deep blue sea: on the problem of being a herbivore. In: Anderson RM, Turner BD, Taylor LR, editors. Population dynamics. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications. p. 223–244.
  • Majerus MEN. 2002. Moths. London: Harper Collins.
  • McArthur C, Sanson GD. 1993. Nutritional effects and costs of a tannin in a grazing and a browsing macropodid marsupial herbivore. Functional Ecology 7:690–696.
  • Mduma SAR, Sinclair ARE, Hilborn R. 1999. Food regulates the Serengeti wildebeest: a 40-year record. Journal of Animal Ecology 68:1101–1122.
  • Midgley JJ. 2005. Why don’t leaf-eating animals prevent the formation of vegetation? Relative vs absolute dietary requirements. New Phytologist 168:271–273.
  • Midgley JJ, Midgley G, Bond WJ. 2002. Why were dinosaurs so large? A food quality hypothesis. Evolutionary Ecology Research 4:1093–1095.
  • Mkhiz NR, Heitkönig IMA, Scogings PF, Dziba LE, Prins HHT, De Boer WR. 2015. Condensed tannins reduce browsing and increase grazing time of free-ranging goats in semi-arid Savannas. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 169:33–37.
  • Moore BD, Foley WJ, Wallis IR, Cowling A, Handasyde KA. 2005. Eucalyptus foliar chemistry explains selective feeding by koalas. Biology Letters 1:64–67.
  • Moore O, Standen L, Crawley MJ. 2015. The impact of red deer management on liverworts associated with the mixed hepatic mat community and other terrestrial cryptogams. Plant Ecology & Diversity 8:139–145.
  • Moran N, Hamilton WD. 1980. Low nutritive quality as defense against herbivores. Journal of Theoretical Biology 86:247–254.
  • Murphy BP, Bowman DMJS. 2012. What controls the distribution of tropical forest and savanna? Ecology Letters 15:748–758.
  • Naeem S. 2008. Ecology: green with complexity. Science 319:913–914.
  • Nelson MP, Vucetich JA, Peterson RO, Vucetich LM. 2011. The Isle Royal wolf-moose project (1958-present) and the wonder of long-term ecological research. Endeavour 35:31–39.
  • Owen Smith N. 2008. The refuge concept extends to plants as well: storage, buffers and regrowth in variable environments. Oikos 117:481–483.
  • Owen-Smith N, Kerley GIH, Page B, Slotow R, van Arde RJ. 2006. A scientific perspective on the management of elephants in the Kruger National Park and elsewhere. South African Journal of Science 102:389–394.
  • Paine RT. 2000. Phycology for the mammologist: marine rocky shores and mammal-dominated communities. Journal of Mammology 81:637–648.
  • Peterson RO. 1999. Wolf-moose interaction on Isle Royale: the end of natural regulation? Ecological Applications 9:10–16.
  • Polis GA. 1999. Why are parts of the world green? Multiple factors control productivity and the distribution of biomass. Oikos 86:3–15.
  • Post E, Peterson RO, Stenseth NCHR, McLaren BE. 1999. Ecosystem consequences of wolf behavioural response to climate. Nature 401:905–907.
  • Post E, Stenseth NCHR. 1998. Large-scale climatic fluctuation and population dynamics of moose and white-tailed deer. Journal of Animal Ecology 67:537–543.
  • Power ME. 1992. Top-down and bottom-up forces in food webs: do plants have primacy? Ecology 73:733–746.
  • Rackham O. 2003. Ancient woodland; its history, vegetation and uses in England. 2nd ed. Dalbeattie (UK): Castlepoint Press.
  • Reed DC, Rassweiler A, Carr MH, Cavanaugh KC, Malone DP, Siegel DA. 2011. Wave disturbance overwhelms top-down and bottom-up control of primary production in California kelp forests. Ecology 92:2108–2116.
  • Richards LA, Coley PD. 2007. Seasonal and habitat differences affect the impact of food and predation on herbivores: a comparison between gaps and understory of a tropical forest. Oikos 116:31–40.
  • Ripple WJ, Beschta RL. 2012. Large predators limit herbivore densities in northern forest ecosystems. European Journal of Wildlife Research 58:733–742.
  • Robinson JM. 1990. Lignin, land plants, and fungi: biological evolution affecting phanerozoic oxygen balance. Geology 18:607–610.
  • Scholes RJ, Bond WJ, Eckhardt HC. 2003. Vegetation dynamics in the Kruger Ecosystem. In: Du Toit JT, Rogers KH, Biggs HC, editors. The Kruger experience. Washington (DC): Island Press. p. 242–262.
  • Scott AC, Anderson JM, Anderson HM. 2004. Evidence of plant-insect interactions in the Upper Triassic Molteno Formation of South Africa. Journal of the Geological Society of London 161:401–410.
  • Scott AC, Glasspool IJ. 2006. The diversification of Paleozoic fire systems and fluctuations in atmospheric oxygen concentrations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 103:10861–10865.
  • Şekercioğlu CH. 2006. Ecological significance of bird populations. In: del Hoyo J, Elliot A, Christie D, editors. Handbook of the birds of the world. Vol. 11. Barcelona (Spain): Lynx. p. 15–51.
  • Sherratt TN, Wilkinson DM. 2009. Big questions in ecology and evolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Small R. 2015. Livestock biodiversity: coming of age? British Wildlife 27:17–24.
  • Southwood TRE. 1973. The insect/plant relationship – an evolutionary perspective. In: van Emden HF, editor. Insect/plant relationships. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications. p. 3–30.
  • Sp O, Day T. 2007. A biologists guide to mathematical modelling in ecology and evolution. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
  • Speed MP, Fenton A, Jones MG, Ruxton GD, Brockhurst MA. 2015. Coevolution can explain defensive secondary metabolite diversity in plants. New Phytologist 208:1251–1263.
  • Spooner B, Roberts P. 2005. Fungi. London (UK): Harper Collins.
  • Staver AS, Archibold S, Levin SA. 2011. The global extent and determinants of savanna and forest as alternative biome states. Science 334:230–232.
  • Steffan SA, Chikaraishi Y, Currie CR, Horn H, Gaines-Day HR, Pauli JN, Zalapa JE, Ohkouchi N. 2015. Microbes are trophic analogs of animals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 112:15119–15124.
  • Terborgh J, Feeley K, Silman M, Nunez P, Balukjian B. 2006. Vegetation dynamics of predator-free land-bridge islands. Journal of Ecology 94:253–263.
  • Vitousek P. 2004. Nutrient cycling and limitation; Hawai’I as a model system. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
  • Watts AS. 1981. Further observations on the effects of excluding rabbits from Grassland A in East Anglian Breckland: the pattern of change and factors affecting it (1936–73). The Journal of Ecology 69:509–536.
  • Wigley BJ, Fritz H, Coetsee C, Bond WJ. 2014. Herbivores shape woody plant communities in the Kruger National Park: lessons from three long-term exclosures. Koedoe 56. Art. #1165. doi:10.4102/koedoe.v56i1.1165
  • Wilkinson DM. 2006. Fundamental processes in ecology; an Earth systems approach. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Wilkinson DM, Creevy AL, Kalu CL, Schwartzman DW. 2015. Are heterotrophic and silica-rich eukaryotic microbes an important part of the lichen symbiosis? Mycology 6:4–7.
  • Wilkinson DM, Ruxton GD. 2013. High C/N ratio (not low-energy content) of vegetation may have driven gigantism in sauropod dinosaurs and perhaps omnivory and/or endothermy in their juveniles. Functional Ecology 27:131–135.
  • Wilson D. 1993. Fungal endophytes: out of site but should not be out of mind. Oikos 68:379–384.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.