A nonrandomised trial of a five-week brief mindfulness-based intervention for emerging adults experiencing anxious and depressive symptoms

References

• Adewuya, A. O., Ola, B. A., & Afolabi, O. O. (2006). Validity of the patient health questionnaire (PHQ-9) as a screening tool for depression amongst Nigerian university students. Journal of Affective Disorders, 96(1-2), 89–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2006.05.021
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arnett, J. J., Žukauskienė, R., & Sugimura, K. (2014). The new life stage of emerging adulthood at ages 18–29 years: Implications for mental health. The Lancet Psychiatry, 1(7), 569–576. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(14)00080-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baer, R. A., Lykins, E. L. B., & Peters, J. R. (2012). Mindfulness and self-compassion as predictors of psychological wellbeing in long-term meditators and matched nonmeditators. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 7(3), 230–238. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2012.674548
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bargh, J. A., & Chartrand, T. L. (1999). The unbearable automaticity of being. American Psychologist, 54(7), 462–479. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.462
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barlow, D. H., Ellard, K. K., Sauer-Zavala, S., Bullis, J. R., & Carl, J. R. (2014). The origins of neuroticism. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 9(5), 481–496. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691614544528
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bass, M., Dawkin, M., Muncer, S., Vigurs, S., & Bostock, J. (2016). Validation of warwick-Edinburgh mental well-being scale (WEMWBS) in a population of people using secondary care mental health services. Journal of Mental Health, 25(4), 323–329. https://doi.org/10.3109/09638237.2015.1124401
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Birnie, K., Speca, M., & Carlson, L. E. (2010). Exploring self-compassion and empathy in the context of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR). Stress and Health, 26(5), 359–371. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.1305
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bluth, K., & Blanton, P. W. (2014). Mindfulness and self-compassion: Exploring pathways to adolescent emotional well-being. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 23(7), 1298–1309. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-013-9830-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bluth, K., & Blanton, P. W. (2015). The influence of self-compassion on emotional well-being among early and older adolescent males and females. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 10(3), 219–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2014.936967
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burgess, E. E., Selchen, S., Diplock, B. D., & Rector, N. A. (2021). A brief mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) intervention as a population-level strategy for anxiety and depression. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 14(2), 380–398. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41811-021-00105-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cape, J., Whittington, C., Buszewicz, M., Wallace, P., & Underwood, L. (2010). Brief psychological therapies for anxiety and depression in primary care: Meta-analysis and meta-regression. BMC Medicine, 8(1), 38. https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-8-38
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Carlson, L. E., Speca, M., Faris, P., & Patel, K. D. (2007). One year pre–post intervention follow-up of psychological, immune, endocrine and blood pressure outcomes of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) in breast and prostate cancer outpatients. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 21(8), 1038–1049. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2007.04.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carmody, J., & Baer, R. A. (2009). How long does a mindfulness-based stress reduction program need to be? A review of class contact hours and effect sizes for psychological distress. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65(6), 627–638. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20555
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang, V. Y., Palesh, O., Caldwell, R., Glasgow, N., Abramson, M., Luskin, F., Gill, M., Burke, A., & Koopman, C. (2004). The effects of a mindfulness-based stress reduction program on stress, mindfulness self-efficacy, and positive states of mind. Stress and Health, 20(3), 141–147. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.1011
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen, F., Curran, P. J., Bollen, K. A., Kirby, J., & Paxton, P. (2008). An empirical evaluation of the use of fixed cutoff points in RMSEA test statistic in structural equation models. Sociological Methods & Research,36(4) https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124108314720
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clarke, A., Friede, T., Putz, R., Ashdown, J., Martin, S., Blake, A., Adi, Y., Parkinson, J., Flynn, P., Platt, S., & Stewart-Brown, S. (2011). Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale (WEMWBS): Validated for teenage school students in England and Scotland. A mixed methods assessment. BMC Public Health, 11(1), 487. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-11-487
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, S. (1994). Perceived stress scale. Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1037/t02889-000
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cohen, S., Janicki-Deverts, D., & Miller, G. E. (2007a). Psychological stress and disease. JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, 298(14), 1685–1687. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.298.14.1685
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, S., Janicki-Deverts, D., & Miller, G. E. (2007b). Psychological stress and disease. JAMA, 298(14), 1685. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.298.14.1685
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, https://doi.org/10.2307/2136404
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Creswell, J. D., & Lindsay, E. K. (2014). How does mindfulness training affect health? A mindfulness stress buffering account. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(6), 401–407. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721414547415
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curran, P. J., Obeidat, K., & Losardo, D. (2010). Twelve frequently asked questions about growth curve modeling. Journal of Cognition and Development, 11(2), 121–136. https://doi.org/10.1080/15248371003699969
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Girolamo, G., Dagani, J., Purcell, R., Cocchi, A., & McGorry, P. D. (2012). Age of onset of mental disorders and use of mental health services: Needs, opportunities and obstacles. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences, 21(1), 47–57. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2045796011000746
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Vibe, M., Solhaug, I., Rosenvinge, J. H., Tyssen, R., Hanley, A., & Garland, E. (2018). Six-year positive effects of a mindfulness-based intervention on mindfulness, coping and well-being in medical and psychology students; Results from a randomized controlled trial. PLoS One, 13(4), e0196053. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0196053
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferro, M. A., Gorter, J. W., & Boyle, M. H. (2015). Trajectories of depressive symptoms during the transition to young adulthood: The role of chronic illness. Journal of Affective Disorders, 174, 594–601. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2014.12.014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fritz, M. S., & MacKinnon, D. P. (2007). Required sample size to detect the mediated effect. Psychological Science, 18(3), 233–239. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01882.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galante, J., Dufour, G., Vainre, M., Wagner, A. P., Stochl, J., Benton, A., Lathia, N., Howarth, E., & Jones, P. B. (2018). A mindfulness-based intervention to increase resilience to stress in university students (the Mindful Student Study): A pragmatic randomised controlled trial. The Lancet Public Health, 3(2), e72–e81. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(17)30231-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grant, N., Hotopf, M., Breen, G., Cleare, A., Grey, N., Hepgul, N., King, S., Moran, P., Pariante, C. M., Wingrove, J., Young, A. H., & Tylee, A. (2014). Predicting outcome following psychological therapy in IAPT (PROMPT): A naturalistic project protocol. BMC Psychiatry, 14(1), 170. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-14-170
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Griffith, J. W., Zinbarg, R. E., Craske, M. G., Mineka, S., Rose, R. D., Waters, A. M., & Sutton, J. M. (2010). Neuroticism as a common dimension in the internalizing disorders. Psychological Medicine, 40(7), 1125–1136. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291709991449
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grossman, P., Niemann, L., Schmidt, S., & Walach, H. (2004). Mindfulness-based stress reduction and health benefits: A meta-analysis. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 57(1), 35–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3999(03)00573-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gustavson, K., Knudsen, A. K., Nesvåg, R., Knudsen, G. P., Vollset, S. E., & Reichborn-Kjennerud, T. (2018). Prevalence and stability of mental disorders among young adults: Findings from a longitudinal study. BMC Psychiatry, 18(1), 65. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-018-1647-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halliburton, A. E., Hill, M. B., Dawson, B. L., Hightower, J. M., & Rueden, H. (2021). Increased stress, declining mental health: Emerging adults’ experiences in college during COVID-19. Emerging Adulthood, 9(5), 433–448. https://doi.org/10.1177/21676968211025348
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayes, J. A., Lockard, A. J., Janis, R. A., & Locke, B. D. (2016). Construct validity of the self-compassion scale-short form among psychotherapy clients. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 29(4), 405–422. https://doi.org/10.1080/09515070.2016.1138397
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayes, S. C., Luoma, J. B., Bond, F. W., Masuda, A., & Lillis, J. (2006). Acceptance and commitment therapy: Model, processes and outcomes. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44(1), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2005.06.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hetrick, S. E., Parker, A. G., Hickie, I. B., Purcell, R., Yung, A. R., & McGorry, P. D. (2008). Early identification and intervention in depressive disorders: Towards a clinical staging model. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 77(5), 263–270. https://doi.org/10.1159/000140085
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hofmann, S. G., Sawyer, A. T., Witt, A. A., & Oh, D. (2010). The effect of mindfulness-based therapy on anxiety and depression: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 78(2), 169–183. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018555
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunsley, J., Elliott, K., & Therrien, Z. (2014). The efficacy and effectiveness of psychological treatments for mood, anxiety, and related disorders. Canadian Psychology / Psychologie Canadienne, 55(3), 161–176. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036933
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huttenlocher, J., Haight, W., Bryk, A., Seltzer, M., & Lyons, T. (1991). Early vocabulary growth: Relation to language input and gender. Developmental Psychology, 27(2), 236–248. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.27.2.236
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobson, N. S., & Truax, P. (1991). Clinical significance: A statistical approach to defining meaningful change in psychotherapy research. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59(1), 12–19. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.59.1.12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly, A. C., Vimalakanthan, K., & Carter, J. C. (2014). Understanding the roles of self-esteem, self-compassion, and fear of self-compassion in eating disorder pathology: An examination of female students and eating disorder patients. Eating Behaviors, 15(3), 388–391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2014.04.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kempf Leonard, K. (2005). Encyclopedia of social measurement. Elsevier.
   Google Scholar
• Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., Merikangas, K. R., & Walters, E. E. (2005). Lifetime prevalence and Age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the national comorbidity survey replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62(6), 593. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.593
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keum, B. T., Miller, M. J., & Inkelas, K. K. (2018). Testing the factor structure and measurement invariance of the PHQ-9 across racially diverse U.S. college students. Psychological Assessment, 30(8), 1096–1106. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000550
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kroenke, K., Spitzer, R. L., & Williams, J. B. W. (2001). The PHQ-9: Validity of a brief depression severity measure. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 16(9), 606–613. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1525-1497.2001.016009606.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuyken, W., Watkins, E., Holden, E., White, K., Taylor, R. S., Byford, S., Evans, A., Radford, S., Teasdale, J. D., & Dalgleish, T. (2010). How does mindfulness-based cognitive therapy work? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 48(11), 1105–1112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2010.08.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, E. H. (2012). Review of the psychometric evidence of the perceived stress scale. Asian Nursing Research, 6(4), 121–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anr.2012.08.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lindsay, E. K., & Creswell, J. D. (2017). Mechanisms of mindfulness training: Monitor and Acceptance Theory (MAT). Clinical Psychology Review, 51, 48–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2016.10.011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Locke, B. D., Bieschke, K. J., Castonguay, L. G., & Hayes, J. A. (2012). The center for collegiate mental health: Studying college student mental health through an innovative research infrastructure that brings science and practice together. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 20(4), 233–245. https://doi.org/10.3109/10673229.2012.712837
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lopez, A. D., Mathers, C. D., Ezzati, M., Jamison, D. T., & Murray, C. J. (2006). Global and regional burden of disease and risk factors, 2001: Systematic analysis of population health data. The Lancet, 367(9524), 1747–1757. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68770-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Löwe, B., Decker, O., Müller, S., Brähler, E., Schellberg, D., Herzog, W., & Herzberg, P. Y. (2008). Validation and standardization of the generalized anxiety disorder screener (GAD-7) in the general population. Medical Care, 46(3), 266–274. https://doi.org/10.1097/MLR.0b013e318160d093
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGorry, P., Bates, T., & Birchwood, M. (2013). Designing youth mental health services for the 21st century: Examples from Australia, Ireland and the UK. British Journal of Psychiatry, 202(54), 30–35. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.112.119214
   Google Scholar
• McGorry, P. D., Purcell, R., Goldstone, S., & Amminger, G. P. (2011). Age of onset and timing of treatment for mental and substance use disorders: Implications for preventive intervention strategies and models of care. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 24(4), 301–306. https://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0b013e3283477a09
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKnight, P. E. (2007). Missing data: A gentle introduction. Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• McMillan, D., Gilbody, S., & Richards, D. (2010). Defining successful treatment outcome in depression using the PHQ-9: A comparison of methods. Journal of Affective Disorders, 127(1-3), 122–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2010.04.030
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moller, N. P., Ryan, G., Rollings, J., & Barkham, M. (2019). The 2018 UK NHS Digital annual report on the Improving Access to Psychological Therapies programme: A brief commentary. BMC Psychiatry, 19(1), 252. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-019-2235-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nam, S., & Toneatto, T. (2016). The influence of attrition in evaluating the efficacy and effectiveness of mindfulness-based interventions. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 14(6), 969–981. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-016-9667-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neff, K. D., & Dahm, K. A. (2015). Self-compassion: What it is, what it does, and how it relates to mindfulness. In B. D. Ostafin, M. D. Robinson, & B. P. Meier (Eds.), Handbook of mindfulness and self-regulation (pp. 121–137). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-2263-5_10
   Google Scholar
• Nieuwsma, J. A., Trivedi, R. B., McDuffie, J., Kronish, I., Benjamin, D., & Williams, J. W. (2012). Brief psychotherapy for depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine, 43(2), 129–151. https://doi.org/10.2190/PM.43.2.c
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nunnally, J., & Bernstein, I. (1994). Psychometric theory. McGraw-Hill.
   Google Scholar
• Nyklíček, I., Dijksman, S. C., Lenders, P. J., Fonteijn, W. A., & Koolen, J. J. (2014). A brief mindfulness based intervention for increase in emotional well-being and quality of life in percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) patients: The MindfulHeart randomized controlled trial. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 37(1), 135–144. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-012-9475-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ontario College Health Association. (2009). Towards a comprehensive mental health strategy: The crucial role of colleges and universities as partners. (p. 5).
   Google Scholar
• Patel, V., Flisher, A. J., Hetrick, S., & McGorry, P. (2007). Mental health of young people: A global public-health challenge. The Lancet, 369(9569), 1302–1313. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60368-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pickert, K. (2014, January 23). The mindful revolution. 183(4). Time, 183(4). http://time.com/1556/the-mindful-revolution/.
   Google Scholar
• Piet, J., & Hougaard, E. (2011). The effect of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for prevention of relapse in recurrent major depressive disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 31(6), 1032–1040. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2011.05.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raes, F., Pommier, E., Neff, K. D., & Van Gucht, D. (2011). Construction and factorial validation of a short form of the Self-Compassion Scale. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 18(3), 250–255. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.702
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Regehr, C., Glancy, D., & Pitts, A. (2013). Interventions to reduce stress in university students: A review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 148(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2012.11.026
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reinherz, H. Z., Paradis, A. D., Giaconia, R. M., Stashwick, C. K., & Fitzmaurice, G. (2003). Childhood and adolescent predictors of major depression in the transition to adulthood. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(12), 2141–2147. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.160.12.2141
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roeser, R. W., & Eccles, J. S. (2015). Mindfulness and compassion in human development: Introduction to the special section. Developmental Psychology, 51(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038453
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roulston, A., Montgomery, L., Campbell, A., & Davidson, G. (2018). Exploring the impact of mindfulnesss on mental wellbeing, stress and resilience of undergraduate social work students. Social Work Education, 37(2), 157–172. https://doi.org/10.1080/02615479.2017.1388776
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shearer, A., Hunt, M., Chowdhury, M., & Nicol, L. (2016). Effects of a brief mindfulness meditation intervention on student stress and heart rate variability. International Journal of Stress Management, 23(2), 232–254. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039814
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Solhaug, I., de Vibe, M., Friborg, O., Sørlie, T., Tyssen, R., Bjørndal, A., & Rosenvinge, J. H. (2019). Long-term mental health effects of mindfulness training: A 4-year follow-up study. Mindfulness, 10(8), 1661–1672. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-019-01100-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Song, Y., & Lindquist, R. (2015). Effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction on depression, anxiety, stress and mindfulness in Korean nursing students. Nurse Education Today, 35(1), 86–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2014.06.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spitzer, R. L., Kroenke, K., Williams, J. B. W., & Löwe, B. (2006). A Brief Measure for Assessing Generalized Anxiety Disorder: The GAD-7. Archives of Internal Medicine, 166(10), 1092. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.166.10.1092
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sukhera, J., Fisman, S., & Davidson, S. (2015). Mind the gap: A review of mental health service delivery for transition age youth. Vulnerable Children and Youth Studies, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1080/17450128.2015.1080393
   Google Scholar
• Sukhera, J., Lynch, J., Wardrop, N., & Miller, K. (2017). Real-time needs, real-time care: Creating adaptive systems of community-based care for emerging adults. Canadian Journal of Community Mental Health, 36(1), 41–53. https://doi.org/10.7870/cjcmh-2017-003
   Google Scholar
• Tennant, R., Hiller, L., Fishwick, R., Platt, S., Joseph, S., Weich, S., Parkinson, J., Secker, J., & Stewart-Brown, S. (2007). The Warwick-Edinburgh mental well-being scale (WEMWBS): Development and UK validation. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 5(1), 63. https://doi.org/10.1186/1477-7525-5-63
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winnebeck, E., Fissler, M., Gärtner, M., Chadwick, P., & Barnhofer, T. (2017). Brief training in mindfulness meditation reduces symptoms in patients with a chronic or recurrent lifetime history of depression: A randomized controlled study. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 99(Supplement C), 124–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2017.10.005
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Xiao, H., Castonguay, L. G., Janis, R. A., Youn, S. J., Hayes, J. A., & Locke, B. D. (2017). Therapist effects on dropout from a college counseling center practice research network. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 64(4), 424–431. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000208
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar