How different are English learners from their native English-speaking peers? Evidence of equivalent lexical competence in classroom conversations

References

• Abedi, J. (2004). The no child left behind act and English language learners: Assessment and accountability issues. Educational Researcher, 33(1), 4–14. doi:10.3102/0013189X033001004
   Google Scholar
• Abedi, J., & Linquanti, R. (2012). Issues and opportunities in improving the quality of large scale assessment systems for English language learners. Paper presented at the Understanding Language Conference, Stanford, CA. Retrieved from http://ell.stanford.edu/papers/practice
   Google Scholar
• August, D. (2018). Educating English language learners: A review of the latest research. American Educator, 42(3), 4.
   Google Scholar
• August, D., Carlo, M., Dressler, C., & Snow, C. (2005). The critical role of vocabulary development for English language learners. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 20(1), 50–57. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5826.2005.00120.x
   Google Scholar
• August, D., & Hakuta, K. (Eds.). (1997). Improving schooling for language minority children: A research agenda. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
   Google Scholar
• Avenia-Tapper, B., & Llosa, L. (2015). Construct relevant or irrelevant? The role of linguistic complexity in the assessment of English learner’s science knowledge. Educational Assessment, 20(2), 95–111. doi:10.1080/10627197.2015.1028622
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailey, A. L. (Ed.). (2007). The language demands of school: Putting academic English to the test. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bailey, A. L. (2017). Progressions of a new language: Characterizing explanation development for assessment with young language learners. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 37, 241–263. doi:10.1017/S0267190517000113
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailey, A. L., Blackstock‐Bernstein, A., Ryan, E., & Pitsoulakis, D. (2016). Data mining with natural language processing and corpus linguistics: Unlocking access to school children’s language in diverse contexts to improve instructional and assessment practices. In S. ElAtia, D. Ipperciel, & O. R. Zaïane (Eds.), Data mining and learning analytics: Applications in educational research (pp. 255–275). Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
   Google Scholar
• Bailey, A. L., & Carroll, P. E. (2015). Assessment of English language learners in the era of new academic content standards. Review of Research in Education, 39(1), 253–294. doi:10.3102/0091732X14556074
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailey, A. L., & Heritage, M. (2014). The role of language learning progressions in improved instruction and assessment of English language learners. TESOL Quarterly, 48(3), 480–506. doi:10.1002/tesq.176
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailey, A., Maher, C., & Wilkinson, L. (Eds.). (2018). Language, literacy and learning in the STEM disciplines: How language counts for English learners. New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Bakhtin, M. (1981). Discourse in the novel. In M. Holquist, C. Emerson, & M. Holquist (Eds.), The dialogic imagination (259–422). Austin. University of Texas Press.
   Google Scholar
• Beckner, C., Blythe, R., Bybee, J., Christiansen, M., Croft, W., Ellis, N. C., … Schoenemann, T. (2009). Language is a complex adaptive system: Position paper. Language Learning, 59(1), 1–26. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9922.2009.00533.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benoit, K., Muhr, D., & Watanabe, K. (2020). Stopwords: Multilingual Stopword Lists in R. R package version: 2.3, http://stopwords.quanteda.io/
   Google Scholar
• Bunch, G. C. (2014). The language of ideas and the language of display: Reconceptualizing “academic language” in linguistically diverse classrooms. International Multilingual Research Journal, 8(1), 70–86. doi:10.1080/19313152.2014.852431
   Google Scholar
• Bunch, G. C., Kibler, A., & Pimentel, S. (2012). Realizing opportunities for English learners in the common core English Language arts and disciplinary literacy standards. Paper presented at the Understanding Language Conference, Stanford, CA. Retrieved from http://ell.stanford.edu/papers/practice
   Google Scholar
• Bunch, G. C., Lotan, R., Valdés, G., & Cohen, E. (2005). Keeping content at the heart of content-based instruction: Access and support for transitional English learners. In J. Crandall & D. Kaufman (Eds.), Content-based instruction in primary and secondary school settings (pp. 11–25). Alexandria, VA: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages.
   Google Scholar
• Calderón, M. E., & Minaya-Rowe, L. (2011). Preventing long-term ELs: Transforming schools to meet core standards. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
   Google Scholar
• Cappella, E., & Hwang, S. H. (2015). Peer contexts in schools: Avenues toward behavioral health in early adolescence. Behavioral Medicine, 41(3), 80–89. doi:10.1080/08964289.2015.1034646
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cazden, C. (2001). Classroom discourse: The language of teaching and learning. Portmouth, NJ: Heinemann.
   Google Scholar
• Cheuk, T., Daro, P., & Daro, V. (2018). The language of mathematics and summative assessment: Interactions that matter for English learners. In A. L. Bailey, C. A. Maher, & L. C. Wilkinson (Eds.), Language, literacy and learning in the STEM disciplines: How language counts for English Learners (pp. 187–205). New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Chval, K. B., & Chavez, O. (2011). Designing math lessons for English language learners. Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School, 17(5), 261–265. doi:10.5951/mathteacmiddscho.17.5.0261
   Google Scholar
• Cimpian, J. R., Thompson, K. D., & Makowski, M. B. (2017). Evaluating English learner reclassification policy effects across districts. American Educational Research Journal, 54(1, Suppl), 255S–278S. doi:10.3102/0002831216635796
   Google Scholar
• Corral, Á., Boleda, G., & Ferrer-i-Cancho, R. (2015). Zipf’s Law for word frequencies: Word forms versus lemmas in long texts. PLoS ONE, 10(7), e0129031. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.012903
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coxhead, A. (2000). A new academic word list. TESOL Quarterly, 34(2), 213–238. doi:10.2307/3587951
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coxhead, A. (2011). The academic word list 10 years on: Research and teaching implications. TESOL Quarterly, 45(2), 355–362. doi:10.5054/tq.2011.254528
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cumming, A. (2008). Assessing oral and literate abilities. In E. Shohamy & N. Hornberger (Eds.), Language testing and assessment: Encyclopedia of language and eduation (pp. 3–18). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Dabach, D. B. (2014). I am not a shelter!” Stigma and social boundaries in teachers’ accounts of students’ experience in separate “sheltered” English learner classrooms. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 19(4), 98–124. doi:10.1080/10824669.2014.954044
   Google Scholar
• Danescu-Niculescu-Mizil, C., & Lee, L. (2011). Chameleons in imagined conversations: A new approach to understanding coordination of linguistic style in dialogs. In Proceedings of the 2nd Workshop on Cognitive Modeling and Computational Linguistics, Portland, Oregon (pp. 76–87). Association for Computational Linguistics.
   Google Scholar
• Deaton, C. C. M., Deaton, B., & Koballa, T. (2014). Teachers’ awareness of their diverse classrooms: The nature of elementary teachers’ reflections on their science teaching practice. Action in Teacher Education, 36(3), 211–233. doi:10.1080/01626620.2014.917363
   Google Scholar
• Elreda, L. M., Kibler, A., Futch Ehrlich, V. A., & Johnson, H. (2016). Learning in linguistically diverse middle school classrooms: The role of the classroom peer network. Society for Research on Educational Effectiveness, Washington, D.C.
   Google Scholar
• ESSA, E. S. S. A. (2015). Every student succeeds act of 2015, Pub. L. No. 114-95 § 114 Stat. 1177 (2015-2016).
   Google Scholar
• Estrada, P., & Wang, H. (2013). Reclassifying and Not Reclassifying English Learners to Fluent English Proficient, Year 1 Findings: Factors Impeding and Facilitating Reclassification and Access to the Core. American Educational Research Association, April 27-May 1, San Francisco, CA. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED550098
   Google Scholar
• García, G. E., McKoon, G., & August, D. (2006). Language and literacy assessment of language-minority students. In D. August & T. Shanahan (Eds.), Developing literacy in second-language learners: Report of the national literacy panel on language-minority children and youth (pp. 597–624). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
   Google Scholar
• Gardner, D., & Davies, M. (2014). A new academic vocabulary list. Applied Linguistics, 35(3), 305–327. doi:10.1093/applin/amt015
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gasiorek, J., Weatherall, A., Watson, B. (2021). Interactional adjustment: Three approaches in language and social psychology. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 40(1), 102–119. doi:10.1177/0261927X20965652
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halliday, M. A. (1993). Towards a language-based theory of learning. Linguistics and Education, 5(2), 93–116. doi:10.1016/0898-5898(93)90026-7
   Google Scholar
• Harklau, L. (1994). ESL versus mainstream classes: Contrasting L2 learning environments. TESOL Quarterly, 28(2), 241–272. doi:10.2307/3587433
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haynes, J., & Zacarian, D. (2010). Teaching English language learners across the content areas. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
   Google Scholar
• Hsieh, H., & Solano-Flores, G. (2018). TELOS summary report. Development of a searchable repository of language-based interactions: a tool for research on equity and fairness in linguistically diverse classrooms. Stanford University.
   Google Scholar
• Irwin, V., Zhang, J., Wang, X., Hein, S., Wang, K., Roberts, A., … Purcell, S. (2021). Report on the condition of education 2021. NCES 2021-144. National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved at: https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator_cgf.asp#info
   Google Scholar
• Kibler, A. (2017). Peer interaction and learning in multilingual settings from a sociocultural perspective: Theoretical insights. International Multilingual Research Journal, 11(3), 199–203. doi:10.1080/19313152.2017.1328970
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kibler, A., Valdés, G., & Walqui, A. (2021). Introduction A vision for critical dialogic education. In A. Kibler, G. Valdés, & A. Walqui (Eds.), Reconceptualizing the role of critical dialogue in American classrooms: Promoting equity through dialogic education (pp. 1–22). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Kibler, A. K., Walqui, A., & Bunch, G. C. (2015). Transformational opportunities: Language and literacy instruction for English language learners in the common core era in the United States. TESOL Journal, 6(1), 9–35. doi:10.1002/tesj.133
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, O., Quinn, H., & Valdés, G. (2013). Science and language for English language learners in relation to next generation science standards and with implications for common core state standards for English language arts and mathematics. Educational Researcher, 42(4), 223–233. doi:10.3102/0013189X13480524
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Linquanti, R., & Bailey, A. L. (2014). Reprising the home language survey: Summary of a national working session on policies, practices, and tools for identifying potential English Learners. Washington, DC: Council of Chief State School Officers.
   Google Scholar
• Mack, L. (2012). Does every student have a voice? Critical action research on equitable classroom participation practices. Language Teaching Research, 16(3), 417–434. doi:10.1177/1362168812436922
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marzano, R. J. (2004). Building background knowledge for academic achievement: Research on what works in schools. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
   Google Scholar
• Mayer, S. J. (2012). Classroom discourse and democracy: Making meanings together. Educational Psychology: Critical Pedagogical Perspectives (1st ed., Vol.13). New York, NY: Peter Lang Publishing Inc.
   Google Scholar
• McFarland, J., Hussar, B., de Brey, C., Snyder, T., Wang, X., Wilkinson-Flicker, S., … Hinz, S. (2017). The Condition of Education 2017, NCES 2017-144. National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.
   Google Scholar
• Mechura, M. B. (2016). Lemmatization list: English (en), [Data file]. Available at http://www.lexiconista.com (Accessed February 4, 2022).
   Google Scholar
• Menken, K., & Kleyn, T. (2009). The difficult road for long-term English learners. Educational Leadership, 66(7), 26–29.
   Google Scholar
• Moschkovich, J. (2007). Using two languages when learning mathematics. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 64(2), 121–144. doi:10.1007/s10649-005-9005-1
   Google Scholar
• Mulligan, K., Halle, T., & Kinukawa, A. (2012). Reading, mathematics, and science achievement of language-minority students in grade 8. Issue brief. NCES 2012-028). National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.
   Google Scholar
• Nation, I. S. P., & Coxhead, A. (2014). Vocabulary size research at Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand. Language Teaching, 47(3), 398–403. doi:10.1017/S0261444814000111
   Google Scholar
• Nation, I. S. P., & Webb, S. A. (2011). Researching and analyzing vocabulary. Boston, MA: Heinle, Cengage Learning.
   Google Scholar
• National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2017). Promoting the educational success of children and youth learning English: Promising futures. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
   Google Scholar
• National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2018). English learners in STEM subjects: Transforming classrooms, schools, and lives. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
   Google Scholar
• No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, P.L. 107-110, 20 U.S.C. § 6319 (2002)
   Google Scholar
• Olsen, L. (2010). Reparable harm: Fulfilling the unkept promise of educational opportunity for California’s long term English learners. Long Beach: Californians Together.
   Google Scholar
• Passel, and Rohal, M. (2015). Modern immigration wave brings 59 million to US, driving population growth and change through 2065. U.S. population projections: 2015-2065. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center.
   Google Scholar
• Rodriguez-Mojica C. (2018). From Test Scores to Language Use: Emergent Bilinguals Using English to Accomplish Academic Tasks. International Multilingual Research Journal, 12(1), 31–61. doi: 10.1080/19313152.2017.1389222
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodriguez-Mojica C. (2019). “I Don’t Get It. I Need Help”: Emergent Bilinguals Seeking and Receiving Help From Peers in Language Arts. Literacy Research and Instruction, 58(2), 105–121. 10.1080/19388071.2019.1585492
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruiz-Primo M. A., Shavelson R. J., Hamilton L. & Klein S. (2002). On the evaluation of systemic science education reform: Searching for instructional sensitivity. J. Res. Sci. Teach., 39(5), 369–393. doi:10.1002/tea.10027
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rutherford-Quach, S., Kuo, A. C., & Hsieh, H. (2018). Understanding Their Language: Online Professional Development for Teachers of ELLs. American Educator, 42(3), 27–31.
   Google Scholar
• Salerno A. S. & Andrei E. (2021). Inconsistencies in English Learner Identification: An Inventory of How Home Language Surveys Across U.S. States Screen Multilingual Students. AERA Open, 7, 233285842110022. doi:10.1177/23328584211002212
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saunders, W., Goldenberg, C., & Marcelletti, D. (2013). English language development: Guidelines for instruction. American Educator, 37, 13–25.
   Google Scholar
• Saunders, W. M., & Marcelletti, D. J. (2013). The gap that can’t go away: The catch-22 of reclassification in monitoring the progress of English learners. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 35(2), 139–156. doi:10.3102/0162373712461849
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schleppegrell, M. J. (2004). The language of schooling: A functional linguistics perspective. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Seah, L. H., Clarke, D. J., & Hart, C. E. (2011). Understanding students’ language use about expansion through analyzing their lexicogrammatical resources. Science Education, 95(5), 852–876. doi:10.1002/sce.20448
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Solano-Flores, G. (2016). Assessing English language learners: Theory and practice. New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Solano-Flores, G. (2021). The semiotics of test design: Conceptual framework on optimal item features in educational assessment across cultures, countries, and languages. Frontiers in Education, 6, 637993. doi:10.3389/feduc.2021.637993
   Google Scholar
• Solano-Flores, G., & Hakuta, K. (2017). Assessing students in their home language. Retrieved from Stanford University, Understanding Language website: https://stanford.app.box.com/s/uvwlgjbmeeuokts6c2wnibucms4up9c2
   Google Scholar
• Solano-Flores, G., & Li, M. (2013). Generalizability theory and the fair and valid assessment of linguistic minorities. Educational Research and Evaluation, 19(2–3), 245–263. doi:10.1080/13803611.2013.767632
   Google Scholar
• Solano-Flores, G., & Trumbull, E. (2003). Examining language in context: The need for new research and practice paradigms in the testing of English-language learners. Educational Researcher, 32(2), 3–13. doi:10.3102/0013189X032002003
   Google Scholar
• Thompson, K. D. (2015). Questioning the long-term English learner label: How categorization can blind us to students’ abilities. Teachers College Record, 117(12), 1–50. doi:10.1177/016146811511701203
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Umansky, I. M. (2016). To be or not to be EL: An examination of the impact of classifying students as English learners. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 38(4), 714–737. doi:10.3102/0162373716664802
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Umansky, I. M., & Porter, L. (2020). State English learner education policy: A conceptual framework to guide comprehensive policy action. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 28(17), n17. doi:10.14507/epaa.28.4594
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Department of Education (ED), Office of English Language Acquisition (OELA). (2016). English learner tool kit. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from: https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/oela/english-learner-toolkit/index.html[April,2021].
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Department of Education (ED), Office of English Language Acquisition (OELA). (2018). English Learners(EL) Trends From the Nation’s Report Card. Retrieved from https://ncela.ed.gov/files/fast_facts/ELs-NAEP_Card.pdf [February, 2022]
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Department of Education (ED), Office of English Language Acquisition (OELA). (2019). English learners and science achievement. Retrieved from: https://ncela.ed.gov/files/fast_facts/FactSheet_Del4.4_Science_120419_508.pdf [February, 2022]
   Google Scholar
• Valdés, G. (2015). Latin@s and the intergenerational continuity of Spanish: The challenges of curricularizing language. International Multilingual Research Journal, 9(4), 253–273. doi:10.1080/19313152.2015.1086625
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valdés, G., Capitelli, S., & Alvarez, L. (2011). Realistic expectations: English language learners and the acquisition of “academic” English. In J. A. Banks (Ed.), Latino Children Learning English: Steps in the journey (pp. 15–42). New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
   Google Scholar
• Valdés, G., Poza, L., & Brooks, M. (2014). Educating students who do not speak the societal language: The social construction of language learner categories. Profession. Available: https://profession.mla.org/educating-students-who-do-not-speak-the-societal-language-the-social-construction-of-language-learner-categories/ [April 2021].
   Google Scholar
• van Lier, L. (1996). Interaction in the language curriculum: Awareness, autonomy and authenticity. London, UK: Longman.
   Google Scholar
• van Lier, L. (2004). The ecology and semiotics of language learning: A sociocultural perspective (Vol. 3). Netherlands: Springer Dordrecht.
   Google Scholar
• Vygotsky, L. (1986). Thought and language. Cambridgde, MA: The MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Walqui, A, & Heritage, M. (2012). Instruction for diverse groups of ELLs. In Understanding Language Conference, Stanford, CA, Paper presented at the Understanding Language Conference, Stanford, CA. Retrieved from http://ell.stanford.edu/papers/practice
   Google Scholar
• Walqui, A., & Heritage, M. (2018). Meaningful classroom talk: Supporting English learners’ oral language development. American Educator, 42(3), 18.
   Google Scholar
• Webb, S. (2021). The lemma dilemma: How should words be operationalized in research and pedagogy? Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 43(5), 941–949. doi:10.1017/S0272263121000784
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wellington, J., & Osborne, J. (2001). Language and literacy in science education. UK: Open University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Wertsch, J. (1991). Voiced of the mind: A sociocultural approach to mediated action. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Yoon, B. (2008). Uninvited guests: The influence of teachers’ roles and pedagogies on the positioning of English language learners in the regular classroom. American Educational Research Journal, 45(2), 495–522. doi:10.3102/0002831208316200
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zipf, G. (1949). Human behavior and the principle of least effort: An introduction to human ecology. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Press, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Zuengler, J., & Miller, E. (2006). Cognitive and sociocultural perspectives: Two parallel SLA worlds? TESOL Quarterly, 40(1), 35–58. doi:10.2307/40264510
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar