Dubious until officially censored: Effects of online censorship exposure on viewers’ attitudes in authoritarian regimes

References

• Bamman, D., O’Connor, B., & Smith, N. (2012). Censorship and deletion practices in Chinese social media. First Monday, 17(3), Retrieved from https://journals.uic.edu/ojs/index.php/fm/article/download/3943/3169.
   Google Scholar
• Bondes, M., & Schucher, G. (2014). Derailed emotions: The transformation of claims and targets during the Wenzhou online incident. Information, Communication & Society, 17(1), 45–65. doi:10.1080/1369118X.2013.853819
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buckley, C., & Kan, K. (2017, November 24). Beijing kindergarten is accused of abuse, and internet erupts in fury. New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/24/world/asia/beijing-kindergarten-abuse.html
   Google Scholar
• Chen, J., & Xu, Y. (2017). Information manipulation and reform in authoritarian regimes. Political Science Research and Methods, 5(1), 163–178. doi:10.1017/psrm.2015.21
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen, Y., & Yang, D. Y. (2018). The impact of media censorship: 1984 or brave new world? American Economic Review, 109(6), 2294–2332. doi:10.1257/aer.20171765
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheng, Y., & Lee, C. J. (2019). Online crisis communication in a post-truth Chinese society: Evidence from interdisciplinary literature. Public Relations Review, 45(4), 1–10. doi:10.1016/j.pubrev.2019.101826
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Cook, F. L., Jacobs, L. R., & Kim, D. (2010). Trusting what you know: Information, knowledge, and confidence in social security. The Journal of Politics, 72(2), 397–412. doi:10.1017/S0022381610000034
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diamond, L., & Plattner, M. F. (Eds.). (2012). Liberation technology: Social media and the struggle for democracy. Baltimore, MD: JHU Press.
   Google Scholar
• Fu, K. W., Chan, C. H., & Chau, M. (2013). Assessing censorship on microblogs in China: Discriminatory keyword analysis and the real-name registration policy. IEEE Internet Computing, 17(3), 42–50. doi:10.1109/MIC.2013.28
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fullerton, A. S. (2009). A conceptual framework for ordered logistic regression models. Sociological Methods & Research, 38(2), 306–347. doi:10.1177/0049124109346162
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geddes, B., & Zaller, J. (1989). Sources of popular support for authoritarian regimes. American Journal of Political Science, 33(2), 319–347. doi:10.2307/2111150
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gelman, A., & Hill, J. (2006). Data analysis using regression and multilevel/hierarchical models. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Gläßel, C., & Paula, K. (2020). Sometimes less is more: Censorship, news falsification, and disapproval in 1989 East Germany. American Journal of Political Science, 64(3), 682–698. doi:10.1111/ajps.12501
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodman, J. K., Cryder, C. E., & Cheema, A. (2013). Data collection in a flat world: The strengths and weaknesses of Mechanical Turk samples. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 26(3), 213–224. doi:10.1002/bdm.1753
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greitens, S. C. (2013). Authoritarianism online: What can we learn from internet data in nondemocracies? PS, Political Science & Politics, 46(2), 262–270.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gu, Q. (2014). Sina Weibo: A mutual communication apparatus between the Chinese government and Chinese citizens. China Media Research, 10(2), 72–86.
   Google Scholar
• Gunitsky, S. (2015). Corrupting the cyber-commons: Social media as a tool of autocratic stability. Perspectives on Politics, 13(1), 42–54. doi:10.1017/S1537592714003120
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guriev, S., & Treisman, D. (2019). Informational autocrats. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 33(4), 100–127. doi:10.1257/jep.33.4.100
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hedeker, D. (2003). A mixed-effects multinomial logistic regression model. Statistics in Medicine, 22(9), 1433–1446. doi:10.1002/sim.1522
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hobbs, W. R., & Roberts, M. E. (2018). How sudden censorship can increase access to information. American Political Science Review, 112(3), 621–636. doi:10.1017/S0003055418000084
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu, Y., & Pang, A. (2016). Public relations practitioners’ perceptions of the use of crisis response strategies in China. Public Relations Review, 42(2), 333–335. doi:10.1016/j.pubrev.2016.02.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang, H. (2015). Propaganda as signaling. Comparative Politics, 47(4), 419–444. doi:10.5129/001041515816103220
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang, H. (2017). A war of (mis)information: The political effects of rumors and rumor rebuttals in an authoritarian country. British Journal of Political Science, 47(2), 283–311. doi:10.1017/S0007123415000253
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang, H. (2018). The pathology of hard propaganda. Journal of Politics, 80(3), 1034–1038. doi:10.1086/696863
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iyengar, S., & Kinder, D. R. (2013). More than meets the eye: TV News, priming, and public evaluations. Public Communication and Behavior, 1, 135–170.
   Google Scholar
• Jiang, M. (2009). Authoritarian deliberation on Chinese internet. Electronic Journal of Communication, 20(3&4), 1–22.
   Google Scholar
• Journalism and Media Studies Centre, The University of Hong Kong. (2016, March 01). Weiboscope. Retrieved from https://jmsc.hku.hk/2016/03/weiboscope/
   Google Scholar
• Kalathil, S., & Boas, T. C. (2001). The Internet and state control in authoritarian regimes: China, Cuba and the counterrevolution. First Monday, 6(8), Retrieved from https://firstmonday.org/ojs/index.php/fm/article/download/876/785?inline=1.
   Google Scholar
• King, G., Pan, J., & Roberts, M. E. (2013). How censorship in China allows government criticism but silences collective expression. American Political Science Review, 107(2), 326–343. doi:10.1017/S0003055413000014
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• King, G., Pan, J., & Roberts, M. E. (2014). Reverse-engineering censorship in China: Randomized experimentation and participant observation. Science, 345(6199), 891—1251722-10. doi:10.1126/science.1251722
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• King, G., Pan, J., & Roberts, M. E. (2017). How the Chinese government fabricates social media posts for strategic distraction, not engaged argument. American Political Science Review, 111(3), 484–501. doi:10.1017/S0003055417000144
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kyriakopoulou, K. (2011). Authoritarian states and internet social media: Instruments of democratisation or instruments of control? Human Affairs, 21(1), 18–26. doi:10.2478/s13374-011-0003-y
   Google Scholar
• Levitsky, S., & Way, L. A. (2010). Competitive authoritarianism: Hybrid regimes after the Cold War. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lorentzen, P. (2014). China’s strategic censorship. American Journal of Political Science, 58(2), 402–414. doi:10.1111/ajps.12065
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacKinnon, R. (2008). Flatter world and thicker walls? Blogs, censorship and civic discourse in China. Public Choice, 134(1–2), 31–46. doi:10.1007/s11127-007-9199-0
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacKinnon, R. (2009). China’s censorship 2.0: How companies censor bloggers. First Monday, 14(2). Retrieved from https://journals.uic.edu/ojs/index.php/fm/article/download/2378/2089
   Google Scholar
• MacKinnon, R. (2011). Liberation technology: China’s “networked authoritarianism”. Journal of Democracy, 22(2), 32–46. doi:10.1353/jod.2011.0033
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCormick, B. L. (2007). Censorship and accountability in the Chinese media. In  S. Hua & S. Guo (Eds.), China in the Twenty-first Century (pp. 127–151). New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Molden, D. (2014). Understanding priming effects in social psychology: What is “social priming” and how does it occur? Social Cognition, 32(Supplement), 1–11. doi:10.1521/soco.2014.32.supp.1
   Google Scholar
• Munger, K., Bonneau, R., Nagler, J., & Tucker, J. A. (2019). Elites tweet to get feet off the streets: Measuring regime social media strategies during protest. Political Science Research and Methods, 7(4), 815–834. doi:10.1017/psrm.2018.3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nip, J. Y., & Fu, K. W. (2016). Challenging official propaganda? Public opinion leaders on Sina Weibo. China Quarterly, 225, 122–144. doi:10.1017/S0305741015001654
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nye, J. S., Zelikow, P., & King, D. C. (Eds.). (1997). Why people don’t trust government. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Oppenheimer, D. M., Meyvis, T., & Davidenko, N. (2009). Instructional manipulation checks: Detecting satisficing to increase statistical power. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(4), 867–872. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2009.03.009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pan, J., & Siegel, A. A. (2020). How Saudi crackdowns fail to silence online dissent. American Political Science Review, 114(1), 109–125. doi:10.1017/S0003055419000650
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qin, B., Strömberg, D., & Wu, Y. (2017). Why does China allow freer social media? Protests versus surveillance and propaganda. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 31(1), 117–140. doi:10.1257/jep.31.1.117
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rivers, A. M., & Sherman, J. (2018). Experimental design and the reliability of priming effects: Reconsidering the “Train Wreck”. Retrieved from https://psyarxiv.com/r7pd3/download?format=pdf
   Google Scholar
• Roberts, M. E. (2014). Fear, friction, and flooding: Methods of online information control ( Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
   Google Scholar
• Roberts, M. E. (2018). Censored: Distraction and diversion inside China’s great firewall. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Roberts, M. E. (2020). Resilience to online censorship. Annual Review of Political Science, 23(1), 401–421. doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-050718-032837
   Google Scholar
• Rosenfeld, B. (2018). The popularity costs of economic crisis under electoral authoritarianism: Evidence from Russia. American Journal of Political Science, 62(2), 382–397. doi:10.1111/ajps.12338
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roskos-Ewoldsen, D. R., Klinger, M. R., & Roskos-Ewoldsen, B. (2007). Media priming: A meta-analysis. In R. W. Preiss, B. M. Gayle, N. Burrell, & M. Allen (Eds.), Mass media effects research: Advances through meta-analysis (pp. 53–80). New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Rozenas, A., & Stukal, D. (2019). How autocrats manipulate economic news: Evidence from Russia’s state-controlled television. The Journal of Politics, 81(3), 982–996. doi:10.1086/703208
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scheufele, D. A., & Tewksbury, D. (2007). Framing, agenda setting, and priming: The evolution of three media effects models. Journal of Communication, 57(1), 9–20.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steinert-Threlkeld, Z. C. (2017). Spontaneous collective action: Peripheral mobilization during the Arab Spring. American Political Science Review, 111(2), 379–403. doi:10.1017/S0003055416000769
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stockmann, D. (2013). Media commercialization and authoritarian rule in China. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Sullivan, J. (2012). A tale of two microblogs in China. Media, Culture & Society, 34(6), 773–783. doi:10.1177/0163443712448951
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sullivan, J. (2014). China’s Weibo: Is faster different? New Media & Society, 16(1), 24–37. doi:10.1177/1461444812472966
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tan, Y. (2017, November 30). China is deleting posts about a kindergarten allegedly abusing its toddlers. MashableAsia. Retrieved from https://mashable.com/2017/11/30/weibo-social-media-china/
   Google Scholar
• Tang, M., & Huhe, N. (2020). Parsing the effect of the internet on regime support in China. Government and Opposition, 55(1), 130–146. doi:10.1017/gov.2017.39
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tong, Y., & Lei, S. (2013). War of position and microblogging in China. Journal of Contemporary China, 22(80), 292–311. doi:10.1080/10670564.2012.734084
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, H., & Shi, F. (2018). Weibo use and political participation: The mechanism explaining the positive effect of Weibo use on online political participation among college students in contemporary China. Information, Communication & Society, 21(4), 516–530. doi:10.1080/1369118X.2017.1289234
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weibo Data Center. (2017). Weibo User Development Report. Retrieved from http://data.weibo.com/report/reportDetail?id=404
   Google Scholar
• Yang, G. (2009). The power of the internet in China: Citizen activism online. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Yeo, G., & Li, E. X. (2012). Yin and yang: Sina Weibo and the Chinese state. New Perspectives Quarterly, 29(2), 7–9. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5842.2012.01307.x
   Google Scholar
• Zeng, J., Chan, C. H., & Fu, K. W. (2017). How social media construct “truth” around crisis events: Weibo’s rumor management strategies after the 2015 Tianjin blasts. Policy & Internet, 9(3), 297–320. doi:10.1002/poi3.155
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhu, J., Lu, J., & Shi, T. (2013). When grapevine news meets mass media: Different information sources and popular perceptions of government corruption in mainland China. Comparative Political Studies, 46(8), 920–946. doi:10.1177/0010414012463886
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar