Persistence and Fadeout in the Impacts of Child and Adolescent Interventions

References

• Ackerman, P. L. (2007). New developments in understanding skilled performance. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 235–239. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00511.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aizer, A., & Cunha, F. (2012). The production of human capital: Endowments, investments and fertility (NBER Working Paper No. 18429). Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.
   Google Scholar
• Almlund, M., Duckworth, A. L., Heckman, J. J., & Kautz, T. D. (2011). Personality psychology and economics (NBER Working Paper No. 16822). Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.
   Google Scholar
• Au, J., Sheehan, E., Tsai, N., Duncan, G. J., Buschkuehl, M., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2015). Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory: A meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 22(2), 366–377. doi:10.3758/s13423-014-0699-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailey, D. H., Nguyen, T., Jenkins, J. M., Domina, T., Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. S. (2016). Fadeout in an early mathematics intervention: Constraining content or pre-existing differences? Developmental Psychology, 52(9), 1457–1469.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailey, D. H., Watts, T. W., Littlefield, A. K., & Geary, D. C. (2014). State and trait effects on individual differences in children's mathematical development. Psychological Science, 25, 2017–2026. doi:10.1177/0956797614547539
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnett, W. S. (1995). Long-term effects of early childhood programs on cognitive and school outcomes. The Future of Children, 5(3), 25–50. doi:10.2307/1602366
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baroody, A. J. (1987). The development of counting strategies for single-digit addition. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 18(2), 141–157.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baumeister, R. F., & Vohs, K. D. (Eds.). (2004). Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Belfield, C. R., & Bailey, T. (2011). The benefits of attending community college: A review of the evidence. Community College Review, 39(1), 46–68. doi:10.1177/0091552110395575
   Google Scholar
• Benda, B. B. (2005). The robustness of self-control in relation to form of delinquency. Youth & Society, 36(4), 418–444.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bettinger, E. P., Long, B. T., Oreopoulos, P., & Sanbonmatsu, L. (2012). The role of application assistance and information in college decisions: Results from the H&R Block FAFSA Experiment. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 127(3), 1205–1242. doi:10.1093/qje/qjs017
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blackwell, L. A., Trzesniewski, K. H., & Dweck, C. S. (2007). Implicit theories of intelligence and achievement across the junior high school transition: A longitudinal study and an intervention. Child Development, 78, 246–263. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.00995.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blair, C., & Razza, R. P. (2007). Relating effortful control, executive function, and false belief understanding to emerging math and literacy ability in kindergarten. Child Development, 78(2), 647–663. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01019.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bogg, T., & Roberts, B. W. (2004). Conscientiousness and health behaviors: A meta-analysis of the leading behavioral contributors to mortality. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 887–919. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.6.887
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bridges, L. J., Denham, S. A., & Ganiban, J. M. (2004). Definitional issues in emotion regulation research. Child Development, 75(2), 340–345. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00675.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brotman, L. M., Gouley, K. K., Huang, K., Rosenfelt, A., O'Neal, C., & Klein, R. G. (2008). Preventive intervention for preschoolers at high risk for antisocial behavior: Long-term effects on child physical aggression and parenting practices. Journal of Clinical Child & Adult Psychology, 37(2), 386–396. doi:10.1080/15374410801955813
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bus, A. G., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (1999). Phonological awareness and early reading: A meta-analysis of experimental training studies. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91(3), 403–414. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.91.3.403
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell, F., Conti, G., Heckman, J. J., Moon, S. H., Pinto, R., Pungello, E., & Pan, Y. (2014). Early childhood investments substantially boost adult health. Science, 343(6178), 1478–1485. doi:10.1126/science.1248429
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell, F. A., Pungello, E. P., Miller-Johnson, S., Burchinal, M., & Ramey, C. T. (2001). The development of cognitive and academic abilities: Growth curves from an early childhood educational experiment. Developmental Psychology, 37(2), 231–242. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.37.2.231
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cascio, E. U., & Staiger, D. O. (2012). Knowledge, tests, and fadeout in educational interventions (NBER Working Paper No. 18038). Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.
   Google Scholar
• Caspi, A., Harrington, H., Milne, B., Amell, J. W., Reremoana, F. T., & Moffitt, T. E. (2003). Children's behavioral styles at age 3 are linked to their adult personality traits at age 26. Journal of Personality, 71(4), 495–514. doi:10.1111/1467-6494.7104001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castleman, B. L., & Page, L. C. (2014). Summer nudging: Can personalized text messages and peer mentor outreach increase college going among low-income high school graduates? Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 115, 144–160. doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2014.12.008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cawley, J., Conneely, K., Heckman, J., & Vytlacil, E. (1997). Cognitive ability, wages, and meritocracy. In B. Devlin, S. D. Feinberg, D. P. Resnick, & K. Roeder (Eds.), Intelligence, genes and success: Scientists respond to The Bell Curve (pp. 179–192). New York, NY: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Ceci, S. J., & Papierno, P. B. (2005). The rhetoric and reality of gap closing: When the “have-nots” gain but the “haves” gain even more. American Psychologist, 60(2), 149–160. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.60.2.149
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University. (2010). The foundations of lifelong health are built in early childhood. Retrieved from http://www.developingchild.harvard.edu
   Google Scholar
• Chen, C. Y., Dormitzer, C. M., Gutiérrez, U., Vittetoe, K., Gonzalez, G. B., & Anthony, J. C. (2004). The adolescent behavioral repertoire as a context for drug exposure: Behavioral autarcesis at play. Addiction, 99(7), 897–906. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2004.00774.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chetty, R., Friedman, J. N., Hilger, N., Saez, E., Whitmore, D., & Schanzenbach, D. Y. (2010). How does your kindergarten classroom affect your earnings? Evidence from Project STAR (NBER Working Paper No. 16381). Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.
   Google Scholar
• Chetty, R., Friedman, J. N., & Rockoff, J. E. (2014). Measuring the impacts of teachers II: Teacher value-added and student outcomes in adulthood. The American Economic Review, 104(9), 2633–2679.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chetty, R., Hendren, N., & Katz, L. F. (2015). The effects of exposure to better neighborhoods on children: New evidence from the Moving to Opportunity experiment (NBER Working Paper No. 21156). Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.
   Google Scholar
• Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2004). Learning trajectories in mathematics education. Mathematical Thinking and Learning, 6(2), 81–89. doi:10.1207/s15327833mtl0602_1
   Google Scholar
• Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2014). Learning and teaching early math: The learning trajectories approach. New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Clements, D. H., Sarama, J., Wolfe, C. B., & Spitler, M. E. (2013). Longitudinal evaluation of a scale-up model for teaching mathematics with trajectories and technologies: Persistence of effects in the third year. American Educational Research Journal, 50(4), 812–850. doi:10.3102/0002831212469270
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, G. L., Garcia, J., Purdie-Vaughns, V., Apfel, N., & Brzustoski, P. (2009). Recursive processes in self-affirmation: Intervening to close the minority achievement gap. Science, 324, 400–403. doi:10.1126/science.1170769
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coie, J. D., Watt, N. F., West, S. G., Hawkins, J. D., Asarnow, J. R., Markman, H. J., … Long, B. (1993). The science of prevention: A conceptual framework and some directions for a national research program. American Psychologist, 48, 1013–1022. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.48.10.1013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. (1999a). Initial impact of the Fast Track Prevention Trial for Conduct Problems: I. The high-risk sample. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67, 631–647. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.67.5.631
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. (1999b). Initial impact of the Fast Track Prevention Trial for Conduct Problems: II. Classroom effects. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67, 648–657.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. (2011). The effects of the Fast Track preventive intervention on the development of conduct disorder across childhood. Child Development, 82(1), 331. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01558.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cortes, K. E., & Goodman, J. S. (2014). Ability-tracking, instructional time, and better pedagogy: The effect of double-dose algebra on student achievement. The American Economic Review, 104(5), 400–405. doi:10.1257/aer.104.5.400
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cunha, F., & Heckman, J. J. (2007). The technology of skill formation. American Economic Review, 97(2), 31–47. doi:10.3386/w12840
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Currie, J., & Thomas, D. (2000). School quality and the longer-term effects of Head Start. Journal of Human Resources, 35(4), 755–774. doi:10.2307/146372
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dahl, R. E., & Spear, L. P. (2004). Adolescent brain development: Vulnerabilities and opportunities. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1021, 1–22.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dee, T. S. (2015). Social identity and achievement gaps: Evidence from an affirmation intervention. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 8(2), 149–168. doi:10.1080/19345747.2014.906009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deming, D. (2009). Early childhood intervention and life-cycle skill development: Evidence from Head Start. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 1(3), 111–134.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diamond, A., & Lee, K. (2011). Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4 to 12 years old. Science, 33(6045), 959–964. doi:10.1126/science.1204529
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dodge, K. A., Bai, Y., Ladd, H., & Muschkin, C. (2015). Impact of statewide early childhood programs and policies on educational outcomes through the end of elementary school. Manuscript submitted for publication.
   Google Scholar
• Dodge, K. A., Bierman, K. L., Coie, J. D., Greenberg, M. T., Lochman, J. E., McMahon, R. J., & Pinderhughes, E. E. (2015). Impact of early intervention on psychopathology, crime, and well-being at age 25. American Journal of Psychiatry, 172(1), 59–70. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2014.13060786
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dodge, K. A., Greenberg, M. T., Malone, P. S., & Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. (2008). Testing an idealized dynamic cascade model of the development of serious violence in adolescence. Child Development, 79, 1907–1927. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01233.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dodge, K. A., Malone, P., Lansford, J. E., Miller, S., Pettit, G. S., & Bates, J. E. (2009). A dynamic cascade model of the development of substance use onset. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 74(3), 1–120.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duckworth, A. L., Peterson, C., Matthews, M. D., & Kelly, D. R. (2007). Grit: Perseverance and passion for long-term goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 1087–1101. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1087
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duckworth, A. L., & Quinn, P. D. (2009). Development and validation of the short grit scale (GRIT-S). Journal of Personality Assessment, 91, 166–174. doi:10.1080/00223890802634290
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duncan, G. J., Dowsett, C. J., Claessens, A., Magnuson, K., Huston, A. C., Klebanov, P., … Japel, C. (2007). School readiness and later achievement. Developmental Psychology, 43(6), 1428–1446. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.6.1428.supp
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Durlak, J. A., Weissberg, R. P., Dymnicki, A. B., Taylor, R. D., & Schellinger, K. B. (2011). The impact of enhancing students' social and emotional learning: A meta-analysis of school-based universal interventions. Child Development, 82, 405–432. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01564.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eisenberg, N., Sadovsky, A., Spinrad, T. L., Fabes, R. A., Losoya, S. H., Valiente, C., … Shepard, S. A. (2005). The relations of problem behavior status to children's negative emotionality, effortful control, and impulsivity: Concurrent relations and prediction of change. Developmental Psychology, 41(1), 193–211. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.41.1.193
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Engelhardt, L. E., Briley, D. A., Mann, F. D., Harden, K. P., & Tucker-Drob, E. M. (2015). Genes unite executive functions in childhood. Psychological Science. doi:10.1177/0956797615577209
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flynn, J. R. (2012). Are we getting smarter? Rising IQ in the twenty-first century. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Friedman, H. S., Tucker, J. S., Tomlinson-Keasey, C., Schwartz, J. E., Wingard, D. L., & Criqui, M. H. (1993). Does childhood personality predict longevity? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 176–185. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.65.1.176
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friedman, N. P., Miyake, A., Young, S. E., DeFries, J. C., Corley, R. P., & Hewitt, J. K. (2008). Individual differences in executive functions are almost entirely genetic in origin. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 137(2), 201–225. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.137.2.201
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fuchs, L. S., Geary, D. C., Compton, D. L., Fuchs, D., Schatschneider, C., Hamlett, C. L., … Changas, P. (2013). Effects of first-grade number knowledge tutoring with contrasting forms of practice. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105, 58–77. doi:10.1037/a0030127
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fuchs, L. S., Schumacher, R. F., Long, J., Namkung, J., Hamlett, C. L., Cirino, P. T., … Changas, P. (2013). Improving at-risk learners' understanding of fractions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(3), 683–700. doi:10.1037/a0032446
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaspard, H., Dicke, A. L., Flunger, B., Brisson, B. M., Häfner, I., Nagengast, B., & Trautwein, U. (2015). Fostering adolescents' value beliefs for mathematics with a relevance intervention in the classroom. Developmental Psychology, 51(9), 1226–1240. doi:10.1037/dev0000028
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gottfredson, L. S. (1997). Why g matters: The complexity of everyday life. Intelligence, 24, 79–132. doi:10.1016/S0160-2896(97)90014-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haier, R. J. (2014). Increased intelligence is a myth (so far). Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, 8, 34. doi:10.3389/fnsys.2014.00034
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hanselman, P., Rozek, C. R., Grigg, J., & Borman, G. D. (2016). New evidence on self-affirmation effects and theorized sources of heterogeneity from large-scale replications. Journal of Educational Psychology. Advance online publication. doi:10.1037/edu0000141
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanushek, E. A., Schwerdt, G., Wiederhold, S., & Woessmann, L. (2015). Returns to skills around the world: Evidence from PIAAC. European Economic Review, 73, 103–130.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haskins, R. (1985). Public school aggression among children with varying day-care experience. Child Development, 56(3), 689–703. doi:10.2307/1129759
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heckman, J. J. (1995). Lessons from The Bell Curve. Journal of Political Economy, 1091–1120. doi:10.1086/262014
   Google Scholar
• Heckman, J. J., & Kautz, T. (2013). Fostering and measuring skills: Interventions that improve character and cognition (NBER Working Paper No. 19656). Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.
   Google Scholar
• Heckman, J. J., Pinto, R., & Savelyev, P. A. (2012). Understanding the mechanisms through which an influential early childhood program boosted adult outcomes (NBER Working Paper No. 18581). Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.
   Google Scholar
• Heller, S., Pollack, H. A., Ander, R., & Ludwig, J. (2013). Preventing youth violence and dropout: A randomized field experiment (NBER Working Paper No. 19014). National Bureau of Economic Research.
   Google Scholar
• Herrnstein, R., & Murray, C. (1994). The bell curve. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
   Google Scholar
• Hill, C. J., Bloom, H. S., Black, A. R., & Lipsey, M. W. (2008). Empirical benchmarks for interpreting effect sizes in research. Child Development Perspectives, 2, 172–177. doi:10.1111/j.1750-8606.2008.00061.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horowitz, J. L., & Garber, J. (2006). The prevention of depressive symptoms in children and adolescents: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74(3), 401. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.74.3.401
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hudson, N. W., & Fraley, R. C. (2015). Volitional personality trait change: Can people choose to change their personality traits? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109(3), 490–507.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. doi:10.1126/science.1177067
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ivcevic, Z., & Brackett, M. (2014). Predicting school success: Comparing conscientiousness, grit, and emotion regulation ability. Journal of Research in Personality, 52, 29–36. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2014.06.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacob, B. A., Lefgren, L., & Sims, D. P. (2010). The persistence of teacher-induced learning. Journal of Human Resources, 45(4), 915–943.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacob, R., & Parkinson, J. (2015). The potential for school-based interventions that target executive function to improve academic achievement: A review. Review of Educational Research, 85(4), 512–552.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jenkins, J. M., Watts, T., Clements, D., Sarama, J., Wolfe, C. B., & Spitler, M. (2015). Preventing preschool fadeout through instructional intervention in kindergarten and first grade. Manuscript submitted for publication.
   Google Scholar
• Jensen, A. R. (1998). The g factor: The science of mental ability. Westport, CT: Praeger.
   Google Scholar
• Judge, T. A., Higgins, C. A., Thoresen, C. J., & Barrick, M. R. (1999). The big five personality traits, general mental ability, and career success across the life span. Personnel Psychology, 52, 621–652. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1999.tb00174.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kemple, J. J., & Willner, C. J. (2008). Career academies: Long-term impacts on labor market outcomes, educational attainment, and transitions to adulthood. New York, NY: MDRC.
   Google Scholar
• Kenthirarajah, D. T., & Walton, G. M. (2015). How brief social‐psychological interventions can cause enduring effects. Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences: An Interdisciplinary, Searchable, and Linkable Resource. doi:10.1002/9781118900772.etrds0026
   Google Scholar
• Krasner, M. S., Epstein, R. M., Beckman, H., Suchman, A. L., Chapman, B., Mooney, C. J., & Quill, T. E. (2009). Association of an educational program in mindful communication with burnout, empathy, and attitudes among primary care physicians. JAMA, 302(12), 1284–1293. doi:10.1001/jama.2009.1384
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LaBerge, D., & Samuels, S. J. (1974). Toward a theory of automatic information processing in reading. Cognitive Psychology, 6(2), 293–323. doi:10.1016/0010-0285(74)90015-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ladd, H. F., Muschkin, C. G., & Dodge, K. A. (2014). From birth to school: Early childhood initiatives and third‐grade outcomes in North Carolina. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 33(1), 162–187.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lemaire, P., & Siegler, R. S. (1995). Four aspects of strategic change: Contributions to children's learning of multiplication. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 124(1), 83.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Littlefield, A. K., Stevens, A. K., & Sher, K. J. (2014). Impulsivity and alcohol involvement: Multiple, distinct constructs and processes. Current Addiction Reports, 1, 33–40. doi:10.1007/s40429-013-0004-5
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Magidson, J. F., Collado-Rodriguez, A., Madan, A., Perez-Camoirano, N. A., Galloway, S. K., Borckardt, J. J., & Miller, J. D. (2012). Addressing narcissistic personality features in the context of medical care: Integrating diverse perspectives to inform clinical practice. Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment, 3(2), 196–208.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Magnuson, K. A., Ruhm, C., & Waldfogel, J. (2007). The persistence of preschool effects: Do subsequent classroom experiences matter? Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 22(1), 18–38. doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2006.10.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maluccio, J. A., Hoddinott, J., Behrman, J. R., Martorell, R., Quisumbing, A. R., & Stein, A. D. (2009). The impact of improving nutrition during early childhood on education among Guatemalan adults. The Economic Journal, 119, 734–763. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0297.2009.02220.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Masten, A. S., Burt, K. B., Roisman, G. I., Obradovic, J., Long, J. D., & Tellegen, A. (2004). Resources and resilience in the transition to adulthood: Continuity and change. Development and Psychopathology, 16(4), 1071–1094. doi:10.1017/S0954579404040143
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Masten, A. S., & Cicchetti, D. (2010). Developmental cascades. Development and psychopathology, 22(03), 491–495. doi:10.1017/S0954579410000222
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McAdams, D. P., & Pals, J. L. (2006). A new Big Five: Fundamental principles for an integrative science of personality. American Psychologist, 61(3), 204–217.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCoy, D. C., Yoshikawa, H., Ziol-Guest, K. M., Duncan, G. J., Schindler, H. S., Magnuson, K. A., & Yang, R. (2015). Long-term impacts of early childhood education programs on graduation, special education placement, and grade retention: A meta-analysis. Manuscript in preparation.
   Google Scholar
• McCrae, R. R., Costa, P. T., Jr., Ostendorf, F., Angleitner, A., Hřebíčková, M., Avia, M. D., … & Smith, P. B. (2000). Nature over nurture: Temperament, personality, and life span development. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 173–186. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.78.1.173
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Melby-Lervåg, M., Redick, T. S., & Hulme, C. (2016). Working memory training does not improve performance on measures of intelligence or other measures of “far transfer”: Evidence from a meta-analytic review. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 11(4), 512–534.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miles, E., Sheeran, P., Baird, H., Macdonald, I., Webb, T. L., & Harris, P. R. (2016). Does self-control improve with practice? Evidence from a six-week training program. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 145(8), 1075.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., & Howerter, A. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex frontal lobe tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100. doi:10.1006/cogp.1999.0734
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morris, P., Mattera, S. K., Castells, N., Bangser, M., Bierman, K., & Raver, C. C. (2014). Impact findings from the Head Start CARES Demonstration: National evaluation of three approaches to improving preschoolers' social and emotional competence (OPRE Report 2014-44). Washington, DC: Office of Planning, Research and Evaluation, Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
   Google Scholar
• Muschkin, C. G., Ladd, H. F., & Dodge, K. A. (2015). Impact of North Carolina's early childhood initiatives on special education placements in third grade. Education Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 37, 478–500. doi:10.3102/0162373714559096
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Mathematics Advisory Panel. (2008). Foundations for success: The final report of the National Mathematics Advisory Panel. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.
   Google Scholar
• Nisbett, R. E., Aronson, J., Blair, C., Dickens, W., Flynn, J., Halpern, D. F., & Turkheimer, E. (2012). Intelligence: New findings and theoretical developments. American Psychologist, 67(2), 130–159. doi:10.1037/a0026699
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olds, D. L., Kitzman, H., Hanks, C., Cole, R., Anson, E., Sidora-Arcoleo, … Bondy, J. (2007). Effects of nurse home visiting on maternal and child functioning: Age 9 follow-up of a randomized trial. Pediatrics, 120(4), e832–e845. doi:10.1542/peds.2006-2111
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Owen, L. (2012). Narrowing the college opportunity gap: Helping students and families navigate the financial aid process (Doctoral dissertation). Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR.
   Google Scholar
• Paris, S. G. (2005). Reinterpreting the development of reading skills. Reading Research Quarterly, 40, 184–202. doi:10.1598/RRQ.40.2.3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Penner, A. M., Domina, T., Penner, E. K., & Conley, A. M. (2015). Curricular policy as a collective effects problem: A distributional approach. Social Science Research, 52, 627–641. doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2015.03.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poropat, A. E. (2014). Other-rated personality and academic performance: Evidence and implications. Learning and Individual Differences, 34, 24–32. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2014.05.013
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Protzko, J. (2015). The environment in raising early intelligence: A meta-analysis of the fadeout effect. Intelligence, 53, 202–210.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Protzko, J., & Aronson, J. (2016). Context moderates affirmation effects on the ethnic achievement gap. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 7, 500–507. doi:10.1177/1948550616646426
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Puma, M., Bell, S., Cook, R., Heid, C., Broene, P., Jenkins, F., … Downer, J. (2012). Third grade follow-up to the Head Start Impact Study: Final report (OPRE Report No. 2012-45). Retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED539264
   Google Scholar
• Purtell, K. M., & Gershoff, E. T. (2013, November). The “skill begets skill” hypothesis and the experimental effects of Head Start on children's academic skills and social behaviors. Paper presented at the Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management Annual Meeting, Washington, DC.
   Google Scholar
• Ramey, S. L., & Ramey, C.T. (2006). Early educational interventions: Principles of effective and sustained benefits from targeted early education programs. In S. B. Neuman, & D. K. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research (2nd ed., pp. 445–459). New York, NY: Guilford Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Raver, C. C. (2004). Placing emotional self-regulation in sociocultural and socioeconomic contexts. Child Development, 75(2), 346–53. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00676.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ritchie, S. J., & Bates, T. C. (2013). Enduring links from childhood mathematics and reading achievement to adult socioeconomic status. Psychological Science, 24, 1301–1308. doi:10.1177/0956797612466268
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts, B. W., Lejuez, C., Krueger, R. F., Richards, J. M., & Hill, P. L. (2014). What is conscientiousness and how can it be assessed? Developmental Psychology, 50(5), 1315–1330.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts, B. W., Walton, K. E., & Viechtbauer, W. (2006). Patterns of mean-level change in personality traits across the life course: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Psychological Bulletin, 132(1), 1–25. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts, G., Quach, J., Spencer-Smith, M., Anderson, P. J., Gathercole, S., Gold, L., … Wake, M. (2016). Academic outcomes 2 years after working memory training for children with low working memory: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Pediatrics, 170(5). doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2015.4568
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rothstein, J. (2015). Revisiting the impacts of teachers (UC–Berkeley Working Paper). Retrieved from http://eml.berkeley.edu/∼jrothst/workingpapers/rothstein_cfr_oct2015.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Sandler, I., Ingram, A., Wolchik, S., Tein, J., & Winslow, E. (2015). Long-term effects of parenting-focused preventive interventions to promote resilience of children and adolescents. Child Development Perspectives, 9(3), 164–171. doi:10.1111/cdep.12126
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sandler, I., Schoenfelder, E., Wolchik, S., & MacKinnon, D. (2011). Long-term impact of prevention programs to promote effective parenting: Lasting effects but uncertain processes. Annual Review of Psychology, 62, 299–329. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.121208.131619
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. (2004). General mental ability in the world of work: Occupational attainment and job performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 162–173. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.86.1.162
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schweinhart, L. J., Barnes, H. V., & Weikart, D. P. (1993). Significant benefits: The High/Scope Perry Preschool Study through age 27. Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Educational Research Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Schweinhart, L. J., Montie, J., Xiang, Z., Barnett, W. S., Belfield, C. R., & Nores. M. (2005). Lifetime effects: The High/Scope Perry Preschool study through age 40. Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Press.
   Google Scholar
• Shadish, W. R. (2010). Campbell and Rubin: A primer and comparison of their approaches to causal inference in field settings. Psychological Methods, 15, 3–17.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sherman, D. K., & Cohen, G. L. (2006). The psychology of self‐defense: Self‐affirmation theory. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 183–242. doi:10.1016/S0065-2601(06)38004-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shonkoff, J. P., Garner, A. S., Siegel, B. S., Dobbins, M. I., Earls, M. F., McGuinn, L., … Wood, D. L. (2012). The lifelong effects of early childhood adversity and toxic stress. Pediatrics, 129(1), e232–e246. doi:10.1542/peds.2011-2663
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siegler, R. S. (2009). Improving the numerical understanding of children from low‐income families. Child Development Perspectives, 3(2), 118–124. doi:10.1111/j.1750-8606.2009.00090.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siegler, R. S., Fazio, L. K., Bailey, D. H., & Zhou, X. (2013). Fractions: The new frontier for theories of numerical development. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 17(1), 13–19. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2012.11.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smit, E., Verdurmen, J., Monshouwer, K, & Smit, F. (2008). Family interventions and their effect on adolescent alcohol use in general populations: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 97(3), 195–206. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.03.032
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, T. M., Cobb, P., Farran, D. C., Cordray, D. S., & Munter, C. (2013). Evaluating math recovery: Assessing the causal impact of a diagnostic tutoring program on student achievement. American Educational Research Journal, 50(2), 1–32. doi:10.3102/0002831212469045
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spoth, R., Redmond, C., Clair, S., Shin, C., Greenberg, M., & Feinberg, M. (2011). Preventing substance misuse through community–university partnerships: Randomized controlled trial outcomes 4 1/2 years past baseline. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 40(4), 440–447. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2010.12.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanovich, K. E. (1986). Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of individual differences in the acquisition of literacy. Reading Research Quarterly, 21(4), 360–407.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steele, C. M. (1988). The psychology of self-affirmation: Sustaining the integrity of the self. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Psychology (Vol. 21, pp. 261–302). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• te Nijenhuis, J., van Vianen, A. E., & van der Flier, H. (2007). Score gains on g-loaded tests: No g. Intelligence, 35, 283–300. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2006.07.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tucker-Drob, E. M., & Bates, T. C. (2016). Large cross-national differences in gene × socioeconomic status interaction on intelligence. Psychological Science, 27, 138–149. doi:10.1177/0956797615612727
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker, S. P., Chang, S. M., Powell, C. A., & Grantham-McGregor, S. M. (2005). Effects of early childhood psychosocial stimulation and nutritional supplementation on cognition and education in growth-stunted Jamaican children: Prospective cohort study. The Lancet, 366, 1804–1807. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67574-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webster-Stratton, C., & Taylor, T. (2001). Nipping early risk factors in the bud: Preventing substance abuse, delinquency, and violence in adolescence through interventions targeted at young children (0–8 years). Prevention Science, 2(3), 165–192. doi:10.1023/A:1011510923900
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy-value theory of achievement motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 68–81. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson, T. D., & Linville, P. W. (1982). Improving the academic performance of college freshmen: Attribution therapy revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42(2), 367–376. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.42.2.367
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson, T. D., & Linville, P. W. (1985). Improving the performance of college freshmen with attributional techniques. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49(1), 287–293. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.49.1.287
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yeager, D. S., & Walton, G. M. (2011). Social-psychological interventions in education: They're not magic. Review of Educational Research, 81, 267–301. doi:10.3102/0034654311405999
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar