The Poor Get Richer: Heterogeneity in the Efficacy of a School-Level Intervention for Academic Language

References

• Abt Associates. (2010). Summary of 2009 Striving Readers Projects. Washington, DC: Department of Education, Office of Elementary and Secondary Education.
   Google Scholar
• Applebee, A., Langer, J., Nystrand, M., & Gamoran, A. (2003). Discussion-based approaches to developing understanding: Classroom instruction and student performance in middle and high school English. American Educational Research Journal, 40, 685–730.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• August, D., Branum-Martin, L., Cardenas-Hagan, E., & Francis, D. J. (2009). The impact of an instructional intervention on the science and language learning of middle grade English language learners. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 2, 345–376.
   Google Scholar
• Bloom, H., Richburg-Hayes, L., & Black, A. (2007). Using covariates to improve precision for studies that randomize schools to evaluate educational interventions. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 29(1), 30–59.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bolger, D., Balass, M., Landen, E., & Perfetti, C. (2008). Context variation and definitions in learning the meanings of words: An instance-based learning approach. Discourse Processes, 45(2), 122–159.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buly, M., & Valencia, S. W. (2002). Below the bar: Profiles of students who fail state reading assessments. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 24(3), 219–239.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carlo, M. S., August, D., McLaughlin, B., Snow, C. E., Dressler, C., Lippman, D. N., … White, C. E. (2004). Closing the gap: Addressing the vocabulary needs of English-language learners in bilingual and mainstream classrooms. Reading Research Quarterly, 39, 188–215. doi:10.1598/RRQ.39.2.3
   Google Scholar
• Coxhead, A. (2000). A new academic word list. TESOL Quarterly, 34(2), 213–238.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ford-Connors, E., & Paratore, J. R. (2015). Vocabulary instruction in fifth grade and beyond: Sources of word learning and productive contexts for development. Review of Educational Research, 85(1), 50–91. doi:10.3102/0034654314540943
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freebody, P., & Anderson, R. C. (1983a). Effects on text comprehension of differing proportions and locations of difficult vocabulary. Journal of Literacy Research, 15(3), 19–39. doi:10.1080/10862968309547487
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freebody, P. & Anderson, R. C. (1983b). Effects of vocabulary difficulty, text cohesion, and schema availability on reading comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly, 18, 277–294.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frishkoff, G. A., Perfetti, C. A., & Collins-Thompson, K. (2011). Predicting robust vocabulary growth from measures of incremental learning. Scientific Studies of Reading, 15(1), 71–91.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fukkink, R., Blok, H., & de Glopper, K. (2001). Deriving word meaning from written context: A multicomponential skill. Language Learning, 51(3), 477–496.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gamoran, A., & Nystrand, M. (1991). Background and instructional effects on achievement in eighth-grade English and social studies. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 1, 277–300.
   Google Scholar
• Gough, P., & Tunmer, W. (1986). Decoding, reading, and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education, 7, 6–10.
   Google Scholar
• Hart, B., & Risley, T. R. (1995). Meaningful differences in the everyday experience of young American children. Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publishing Company.
   Google Scholar
• Jones, S. M., LaRusso, M., Kim, J., Kim, H. Y., Selman, R., Uccelli, P., … Snow, C. (2016). Experimental effects of Word Generation on vocabulary, academic language, perspective taking, and reading comprehension in high poverty schools. Manuscript submitted for publication.
   Google Scholar
• LaRusso, M. D., Donovan, S., & Snow, C. (2016). Implementation challenges for Tier One and Tier Two school-based programs for early adolescents. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 154, 11–30.
   Google Scholar
• Lawrence, J. F., Capotosto, L., Branum-Martin, L., White, C., & Snow, C. E. (2012). Language proficiency, home-language status, and English vocabulary development: A longitudinal follow-up of the Word Generation program. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 15, 437–451. doi:10.1017/S1366728911000393
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawrence, J. F., Crosson, A. C., Paré-Blagoev, E. J., & Snow, C. E. (2015). Word Generation randomized trial: Discussion mediates the impact of program treatment on academic word learning. American Educational Research Journal, 52, 750–786. doi:10.3102/0002831215579485
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawrence, J. F., Rolland, R. G., Branum-Martin, L., & Snow, C. E. (2014). Generating vocabulary knowledge for at-risk middle school readers: Contrasting program effects and growth trajectories. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 19(2), 76–97. doi:10.1080/10824669.2014.958836
   Google Scholar
• Lesaux, N. K., Kieffer, M. J., Faller, S. E., & Kelley, J. G. (2010). The effectiveness and ease of implementation of an academic vocabulary intervention for linguistically diverse students in urban middle schools. Reading Research Quarterly, 45(2), 196–228.
   Google Scholar
• Lesaux, N. K., Kieffer, M. J., Kelley, J. G., & Harris, J. R. (2014). Effects of academic vocabulary instruction for linguistically diverse adolescents: Evidence from a randomized field trial. American Educational Research Journal, 51(1), 1159–1194. doi:10.3102/0002831214532165
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levin, H. M. (1988). Cost-effectiveness and educational policy. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 10(1), 51–69.
   Google Scholar
• Little, R. J. A., & Rubin, D. B. (2002). Statistical analysis with missing data. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• MacGinitie, W. H., MacGinitie, R. K., Maria, K., & Dreyer, L. G. (2000). Gates-MacGinitie reading test technical report: Forms S and T. Chicago, IL: Riverside.
   Google Scholar
• Mancilla-Martinez, J. (2010). Word meanings matter: Cultivating vocabulary knowledge in fifth-grade Spanish-speaking language minority learners. TESOL Quarterly, 44, 669–699.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maria, K., Hughes, K. E., MacGinitie, W. H., MacGinitie, R. K., & Dreyer, L. G. (2007). Lexile conversions for the Gates-MacGinitie reading tests, 4th edition. Rolling Meadows, IL: Riverside.
   Google Scholar
• McKeown, M., Beck, I., Omanson, R., & Perfetti, C. (1983). The effects of long-term vocabulary instruction on reading comprehension: A replication. Journal of Reading Behavior, 15(1), 3–18.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKeown, M., Beck, I., Omanson, R., & Pople, M. (1985). Some effects of the nature and frequency of vocabulary instruction on the knowledge and use of words. Reading Research Quarterly, 20, 522–535. doi:10.2307/747940
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murphy, P., Wilkinson, I., Soter, A., Hennessey, M., & Alexander, J. (2009). Examining the effects of classroom discussion on students' comprehension of text: A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(3), 740–764.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Institute of Child Health and Human Development [NICHD]. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
   Google Scholar
• Paris, S. G. (2005). Reinterpreting the development of reading skills. Reading Research Quarterly, 40(2), 184–202.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• RAND Reading Study Group. (2002). Reading for understanding: Toward an R&D program in reading comprehension. Santa Monica, CA: RAND.
   Google Scholar
• Raudenbush, S., & Bryk, A. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods. New York, NY: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Raudenbush, S., Martinez, A., & Spybrook, J. (2007). Strategies for improving precision in group-randomized experiments. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 29(1), 5–29.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reardon, S., Valentine, R., & Shores, K. (2012). Patterns of literacy among U.S. students. The Future of Children, 22, 17–38.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schleppegrell, M. (2001). Linguistic features of the language of schooling. Linguistics and Education, 12(4), 431–459.
   Google Scholar
• Snow, C. E., & Lawrence, J. F. (2011). Word Generation in Boston Public Schools: Natural history of a literacy intervention. Washington, DC: The Council of the Great City Schools. Retrieved from http://www.cgcs.org/cms/lib/DC00001581/Centricity/Domain/85/SUERF_Boston.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Snow, C. E., Lawrence, J. F., & White, C. (2009). Generating knowledge of academic language among urban middle school students. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 2, 325–344. doi:10.1080/19345740903167042
   Google Scholar
• Snow, C. E., Porche, M. V., Tabors, P., & Harris, S. R. (2007). Is literacy enough?: Pathways to academic success for adolescents. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
   Google Scholar
• Snow, C. E., & Uccelli, P. (2009). The challenge of academic language. In N. T. D. Olson (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of literacy (pp. 112–133). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Somers, M. A., Corrin, W., Sepanik, S., Salinger, T., Levin, J., & Zmach, C. (2010). The enhanced reading opportunities study final report: The impact of supplemental literacy courses for struggling ninth-grade readers (NCEE 2010-4021). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.
   Google Scholar
• Swain, M. & Lapkin, S. (1995). A step towards second language learning. Toronto, Canada: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Townsend, D., & Collins, P. (2009). Academic vocabulary and middle school English learners: An intervention study. Reading and Writing, 22(9), 993–1019.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Townsend, D., Filippini, A., Collins, P., & Biancarosa, G. (2012). Evidence for the importance of academic word knowledge for the academic achievement of diverse middle school students. The Elementary School Journal, 112(3), 497–518.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uccelli, P., Galloway, E. P., Barr, C. D., Meneses, A., & Dobbs, C. L. (2015). Beyond vocabulary: Exploring cross‐disciplinary academic‐language proficiency and its association with reading comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly, 50(3), 337–356.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaughn, S., Martinez, L. R., Linan-Thompson, S., Reutebuch, C. K., Carlson, C. D., & Francis, D. J. (2009). Enhancing social studies vocabulary and comprehension for seventh-grade English language learners: Findings from two experimental studies. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 2, 297–324.
   Google Scholar
• Wanzek, J., Vaughn, S., Scammacca, N., Metz, K., Murray, C., Roberts, G., & Danielson, L. (2013). Extensive reading interventions for students with reading difficulties after Grade 3. Review of Educational Research, 83, 163–195.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• What Works Clearinghouse. (2008). Evidence standards for reviewing studies (Technical Report). Washington, DC: Institute for Educational Sciences. Retrieved from http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/pdf/reference_resources/wwc_version1_standards.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Zeno, S., Ivens, S., Millard, R., & Duvvuri, R. (1995). The educator's word frequency guide. Brewster, NY: Touchstone Applied Science Associates.
   Google Scholar