0
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

The Consequences of Misdiagnosing Race-Based Trauma Response in Black Men: A Critical Examination

, , &

References

  • Alegría, M., Chatterji, P., Wells, K., Cao, Z., Chen, C., Takeuchi, D., Jackson, J., & Meng, X.-L. (2008). Disparity in depression treatment among racial and ethnic minority populations in the United States. Psychiatric Services: A Journal of the American Psychiatric Association, 59(11), 1264–1272. https://doi.org/10.1176/ps.2008.59.11.1264
  • Alegría, M., Mulvaney-Day, N., Woo, M., Torries, M., Gao, S., & Oddo, V. (2007). Correlates of past-year mental health service use among latinos: Results from the national latino and Asian American study. American Journal of Public Health, 97(1), 76–83. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2006.087197
  • Alemán, S. M. (2017). A critical race counterstory: Chicana/o subjectivities vs. journalism objectivity. Taboo: The Journal of Culture & Education, 16(1), 73–91. https://doi.org/10.31390/taboo.16.1.08
  • American Psychiatric Association. (2017). Mental health disparities: African americans. https://www.psychiatry.org/File%20Library/Psychiatrists/Cultural-Competency/Mental-Health-Disparities/Mental-Health-Facts-for-African-Americans.pdf
  • Ardino, V. (2014). Trauma-informed care: Is cultural competence a viable solution for efficient policy strategies? Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 11(1), 45–51. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=f563c8a7f8336c9659059cd66adc43edb1112293
  • Behnken, B. D., & Smithers, G. D. (2015). Racism in American popular media: From aunt Jemima to the frito bandito. Praeger.
  • Bell, C. C., Jackson, W. M., & Bell, B. H. (2015). Misdiagnosis of African-Americans with psychiatric issues – part II. Journal of the National Medical Association, 107(3), 35–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0027-9684(15)30049-3
  • Blair, I. V., Judd, C. M., & Fallman, J. L. (2004). The automaticity of race and Afrocentric facial features in social judgments. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 87(6), 763–778. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.87.6.763
  • Castaneda, D., Chowdhury, M., Mariam, W., & Mohamed, A. (2020). Are the misdiagnoses in the healthcare system linked to systemic racism? Across the Spectrum of Socioeconomics, 1(2), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4320158
  • Cénat, J. M. (2023). Complex racial trauma: Evidence, theory, assessment, and treatment. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 18(3), 675–687. https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916221120428
  • Cooper, L. A., Roter, D. L., Carson, K. A., Beach, M. C., Sabin, J. A., Greenwald, A. G., & Inui, T. S. (2012). The associations of clinicians’ implicit attitudes about race with medical visit communication and patient ratings of interpersonal care. American Journal of Public Health, 102(5), 979–987. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2011.300558
  • Degand, D. (2020). Introducing critical race media literacy in an undergraduate education course about technology and arts-based inquiry. International Journal of Multicultural Education, 22(3), 96–117. https://doi.org/10.18251/ijme.v22i3.2461
  • Dill-Shackleford, K. E., Ramasubramanian, S., & Drake, L. (2017). Stories about black men in the media and their consequences for health: Perspectives on health equity and social determinants of health. National Academic Press. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK595241/
  • Dixon, T. L., & Azocar, C. L. (2007). Priming crime and activating blackness: Understanding the psychological impact of the overrepresentation of blacks as lawbreakers on television news. Journal of Communication, 57(2), 229–253. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2007.00341.x
  • Dixon, T. L., & Linz, D. (2000). Race and the misrepresentation of victimization on local television news. Communication Research, 27(5), 547–573. https://doi.org/10.1177/009365000027005001
  • Duncan, S., Horton, H., Smith, R., Purnell, B., Good, L., & Larkin, H. (2023). The restorative integral support (RIS) model: Community-based integration of trauma-informed approaches to advance equity and resilience for boys and men of color. Behavioral Sciences, 13(4), 299. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13040299
  • Eberhardt, J. L., Davies, P. G., Purdie-Vaughns, V. J., & Johnson, S. L. (2006). Looking deathworthy. Psychological Science, 17(5), 383–386. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01716.x
  • Eberhardt, J. L., Goff, P. A., Purdie, V. J., & Davies, P. G. (2004). Seeing black: Race, crime, and visual processing. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 87(6), 876–893. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.87.6.876
  • Ford, J. D., Grasso, D. J., Elhai, J. D., & Courtois, C. A. (Eds.). (2015). Posttraumatic stress disorder. Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-801288-8.00011-X
  • Gara, M. A., Vega, W. A., Arndt, S., Escamilla, M., Fleck, D. E., Lawson, W. B., Lesser, I., Neighbors, H. W., Wilson, D. R., Arnold, L. M., & Strakowski, S. M. (2012). Influence of patient race and ethnicity on clinical assessment in patients with affective disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69(6), 593–600. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.2040
  • Gerbner, G., & Gross, L. (1976). Living with television: The violence profile. Journal of Communication, 26(2), 172–199. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1976.tb01397.x
  • Guldin, R., Noga-Styron, K., & Britto, S. (2021). Media consumption and news literacy habits during the COVID-19 pandemic. The International Journal of Critical Media Literacy, 3(1), 43–71. https://doi.org/10.1163/25900110-03030003
  • Haapanen, K. A., Christens, B. D., Freeman, H. E., Speer, P. W., & Crowell-Williamson, G. A. (2023). Stories of self, us, and now: Narrative and power for health equity in grassroots community organizing. Frontiers in Public Health, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2023.1144123
  • Han, H., Miller, H. N., Nkimbeng, M., Budhathoki, C., Mikhael, T., Rivers, E., Gray, J., Trimble, K., Chow, S., & Wilson, P. (2021). Trauma-informed interventions: A systematic review. PLOS ONE, 16(6), 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0252747
  • Hankerson, S. H., Suite, D., & Bailey, R. K. (2015). Treatment disparities among African American men with depression: Implications for clinical practice. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 26(1), 21–34. https://doi.org/10.1353/hpu.2015.0012
  • Haskard Zolnierek, K. B., & DiMatteo, M. R. (2009). Physician communication and patient adherence to treatment. Medical Care, 47(8), 826–834. https://doi.org/10.1097/MLR.0b013e31819a5acc
  • Henry, P. J. (2010). The SAGE handbook of prejudice, stereotyping and discrimination. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446200919.n26
  • Israel, B. A., Schulz, A. J., Parker, E. A., & Becker, A. B. (1998). Review of community-based research: Assessing partnership approaches to improve public health. Annual Review of Public Health, 19(1), 173–202. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.publhealth.19.1.173
  • Jarvis, G. E., Kirmayer, L. J., Gómez-Carrillo, A., Aggarwal, N. K., & Lewis-Fernández, R. (2020). Update on the cultural formulation interview. Focus: Journal of the American Psychiatric Association, 18(1), 40–46. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.focus.20190037
  • Kleider, H. M., Cavrak, S. E., & Knuycky, L. R. (2012). Looking like a criminal: Stereotypical black facial features promote face source memory error. Memory & Cognition, 40(8), 1200–1213. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-012-0229-x
  • Kleider-Offutt, H. M., Bond, A. D., Williams, S. E., & Bohil, C. J. (2018). When a face type is perceived as threatening: Using general recognition theory to understand biased categorization of Afrocentric faces. Memory & Cognition, 46(5), 716–728. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-018-0801-0
  • Kleider-Offutt, H., Meacham, A. M., Branum-Martin, L., & Capodanno, M. (2021). What’s in a face? The role of facial features in ratings of dominance, threat, and stereotypicality. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 6(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-021-00319-9
  • Lewis-Fernández, R., & Díaz, N. (2002). The cultural formulation: A method for assessing cultural factors affecting the clinical encounter. Psychiatric Quarterly, 73(4), 271–295. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020412000183
  • Loring, M., & Powell, B. (1988). Gender, race, and DSM-III: A study of the objectivity of psychiatric diagnostic behavior. Journal of Health & Social Behavior, 29(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.2307/2137177
  • Malgady, R. G. (1996). The questions of cultural bias in assessment and diagnosis of ethnic minority clients: Let’s reject the null hypothesis. Professional Psychology, Research and Practice, 27(1), 73–77. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.27.1.73
  • Malta, L. S., Levitt, J. T., Martin, A., Davis, L., & Cloitre, M. (2009). Correlates of functional impairment in treatment-seeking survivors of mass terrorism. Behavior Therapy, 40(1), 39–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2007.12.007
  • McGill Johnson, A., Godsil, R. J., Barreto, M., Bester, D., Blain, L., Charles, C., Dasgupta, N., Goff, P. A., Gray, D., Kang, J., Powell, J. A., Richardson, L. S., & Tropp, L. (2014). Transforming perception: Black men and boys. https://equity.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Transforming-Perception.pdf
  • Metzl, J. M. (2010). The protest psychosis: How schizophrenia became a black disease. Beacon Press.
  • Miranda, J., McGuire, T. G., Williams, D. R., & Wang, D. P. (2008). Mental health in the context of health disparities. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 165(9), 1102–1108. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.08030333
  • Motley, R., & Banks, A. (2018). Black males, trauma, and mental health service use: A systematic review. Perspectives on Social Work: The Journal of the Doctoral Students of the University of Houston Graduate School of Social Work, 14(1), 4–19. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6292675/
  • Neighbors, H. W., Jackson, J. S., Campbell, L., & Williams, D. (1989). The influence of racial factors on psychiatric diagnosis: A review and suggestions for research. Community Mental Health Journal, 25(1), 301–311. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00755677
  • Oosterhof, N. N., & Todorov, A. (2008). The functional basis of face evaluation. PNAS, 105(32), 11087–11092. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0805664105
  • Penner, L. A., Dovidio, J. F., West, T. V., Gaertner, S. L., Albrecht, T. L., Dailey, R. K., & Markova, T. (2010). Aversive racism and medical interactions with black patients: A field study. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46(2), 436–440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2009.11.004
  • Phipps, R. M., & Degges‐White, S. (2014). A new look at transgenerational Trauma transmission: Second‐generation Latino immigrant youth. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 42(3), 174–187. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1912.2014.00053.x
  • Ramasubramanian, S. (2010). Television viewing, racial attitudes, and policy preferences: Exploring the role of social identity and intergroup emotions in influencing support for affirmative action. Communication Monographs, 77(1), 102–120. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637750903514300
  • Ratts, M. J., Singh, A. A., Nassar‐McMillan, S., Butler, S. K., & McCullough, J. R. (2016). Multicultural and social justice counseling competencies: Guidelines for the counseling profession. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 44(1), 28–48. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmcd.12035
  • Rosenfield, S. (1984). Race differences in hospitalization: Psychiatric versus labeling perspective. Journal of Health & Social Behavior, 25(1), 14–23. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136701
  • Schwartz, R. C., & Blankenship, D. M. (2014). Racial disparities in psychotic disorder diagnosis: A review of empirical literature. World Journal of Psychiatry, 4(4), 133–140. https://doi.org/10.5498/wjp.v4.i4.133
  • Stangl, A. L., Earnshaw, V. A., Logie, C. H., van Brakel, W., Simbayi, L. C., Barré, I., & Dovidio, J. F. (2019). The health stigma and discrimination framework: A global, crosscutting framework to inform research, intervention development, and policy on health-related stigmas. BMC Medicine, 17(1), 31. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-019-1271-3
  • Strakowski, S. M., McElroy, S. L., Keck, P. E., & West, S. A. (1996). Racial influence on diagnosis in psychotic mania. Journal of Affective Disorders, 39(2), 157–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-0327(96)00028-6
  • Suite, D. H., La Bril, R., Primm, A., & Harrison-Ross, P. (2007). Beyond misdiagnosis, misunderstanding, and mistrust: Relevance of the historical perspective in the medical and mental health treatment of people of color. Journal of the National Medical Association, 99(8), 879–885. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2574307/pdf/jnma00207-0025.pdf
  • Takeuchi, D. T., Zane, N., Hong, S., Chae, D. H., Gong, F., Gee, G. C., Walton, E., Sue, S., & Alegría, M. (2007). Immigration-related factors and mental health disorders among Asian americans. American Journal of Public Health, 97(1), 84–90. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2006.088401
  • Thombs, D., Turner, A., & Shrier, I. (2019). Defining and evaluating overdiagnosis in mental health: A meta-research review. Psychotherapy & Psychosomatics, 88(4), 193–202. https://doi.org/10.1159/000501647
  • Thorpe, R. J., Wilson-Frederick, S. M., Bowie, J. V., Coa, K., Clay, O. J., LaVeist, T. A., & Whitfield, K. E. (2013). Health behaviors and all-cause mortality in African American men. American Journal of Men’s Health, 7(4), 8S–18S. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557988313487552
  • Todorov, A., Mandisodza, A. N., Goren, A., & Hall, C. C. (2005). Inferences of competence from faces predict election outcomes. Science, 308(5728), 1623–1626. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1110589
  • U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2001). Mental health: Culture, race, and ethnicity—A supplement to mental health. https://portal.ct.gov/-/media/dmhas/omhe/mhethnicitypdf.pdf
  • U.S. Public Health Service. (2000). Report of the surgeon general’s conference on children’s mental health: A national action agenda. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK44233/pdf/Bookshelf_NBK44233.pdf
  • van Ryn, M., & Burke, J. (2000). The effect of patient race and socio-economic status on physicians’ perceptions of patients. Social Science & Medicine, 50(6), 813–828. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(99)00338-X
  • Williams, D. R., Haile, R., Gonzalez, H. M., Neighbors, H., Baser, R., & Jackson, J. S. (2007). The mental health of black Caribbean immigrants results from the national survey of American life. American Journal of Public Health, 97(1), 52–59. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2006.088211
  • Williams, M. T., Osman, M., Gran-Ruaz, S., & Lopez, J. (2021). Intersection of racism and PTSD: Assessment and treatment of racial stress and trauma. Current Treatment Options in Psychiatry, 8(1), 167–185. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40501-021-00250-2
  • Willis, J., & Todorov, A. (2006). First impressions: Making up your mind after a 100-ms exposure to a face. Psychological Science, 17(7), 592–598. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01750.x

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.