Efficacy and Safety of Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal) Root Extract in Improving Memory and Cognitive Functions

References

• Aguiar S, Borowski T. Neuropharmacological review of the nootropic herb Bacopa monnieri. Rejuvenation Res. 2013;16:313–326.
   Google Scholar
• Department of Ayush. Ayurvedic pharmacopea of India, Vol-1. New Delhi, India: Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, 1989.
   Google Scholar
• Baldo JV, Katseff S, Dronkers NF. Brain regions underlying repetition and auditory-verbal short-term memory deficits in aphasia: evidence from voxel-based lesion symptom mapping. Aphasiology. 2012;26:338–354. doi:10.1080/02687038.2011.602391
   Google Scholar
• Barcelo F, Sanz M, Molina V, Rubia, F. The Wisconsin card sorting test and the assessment of frontal function: a validation study with event-related potentials. Neuropsychologia. 1997;35:399–408.
   Google Scholar
• Barch DM. Pharmacological manipulation of human working memory. Psychopharmacology (Berlin). 2004;174:126–135. doi:10.1007/s00213-003-1732-3
   Google Scholar
• Bostrom N, Sandberg A. Cognitive enhancement: methods, ethics, regulatory challenges. Sci Eng Ethics. 2009;15:311–341. doi:10.1007/s11948-009-9142-5
   Google Scholar
• Brahmachari G.. Bioactive natural products: opportunities and challenges in medicinal chemistry. Hackensack, NJ: World Scientific. 2011.
   Google Scholar
• Chengappa KNR, Bowie CR, Schlicht PJ, Fleet D, Brar JS, Jindal R. Randomized placebo-controlled adjunctive study of an extract of Withania somnifera for cognitive dysfunction in bipolar disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2013;74:1076–1083. doi:10.4088/JCP.13m08413
   Google Scholar
• Chertkow H. Diagnosis and treatment of dementia: Introduction. Introducing a series based on the Third Canadian Consensus Conference on the Diagnosis and Treatment of Dementia. Can Med Assoc J. 2008;178:316–321.
   Google Scholar
• Choudhary MI, Nawaz SA, Lodhi MA, Ghayur MN, Jalil S, Riaz N, et al. Withanolides, a new class of natural cholinesterase inhibitors with calcium antagonistic properties. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2005;334:276–287. doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2005.06.086
   Google Scholar
• Choudhary MI, Yousuf S, Nawaz SA, Ahmed S, Atta-ur-Rahman. Cholinesterase inhibiting withanolides from Withania somnifera. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo). 2004;52:1358–1361. doi:10.1248/cpb.52.1358
   Google Scholar
• Cooper LA. Mental rotation of random two-dimensional shapes. Cogn Psychol. 1975;7:20–43. doi:10.1016/0010-0285(75)90003-1
   Google Scholar
• de Graaf TA, Roebroeck A, Goebel R, Sack AT. Brain network dynamics underlying visuospatial judgment: an FMRI connectivity study. J Cogn Neurosci. 2010;22:2012–2026. doi:10.1162/jocn.2009.21345
   Google Scholar
• Dhuley JN. Nootropic-like effect of ashwagandha (Withania somnifera L.) in mice. Phytother Res. 2001;15:524–528. doi:10.1002/ptr.2704
   Google Scholar
• Eriksen BA, Eriksen CW. Effects of noise letters upon the identification of a target letter in a nonsearch task. Percept Psychophys. 1974;16:143–149.
   Google Scholar
• Eysenck MW, Derakshan N, Santos R, Calvo MG. Anxiety and cognitive performance: attentional control theory. Emotion. 2007;7:336–353. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.7.2.336
   Google Scholar
• Jelic V, Kivipelto M, Winblad B. Clinical trials in mild cognitive impairment: lessons for the future. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2006;77:429–438. doi:10.1136/jnnp.2005.072926
   Google Scholar
• Jelic V, Winblad B. Treatment of mild cognitive impairment: rationale, present and future strategies. Acta Neurol Scand Suppl. 2003;179:83–93.
   Google Scholar
• Kaschel R. Ginkgo biloba: specificity of neuropsychological improvement; a selective review in search of differential effects. Hum Psychopharmacol. 2009;24(5):45–370. doi:10.1002/hup
   Google Scholar
• Kennedy DO, Wightman EEL. Herbal extracts and phytochemicals: plant secondary metabolites and the enhancement of human brain function. Adv Nutr Ann. 2011;2:32–50. doi:10.3945/an.110.000117.32
   Google Scholar
• Kivimäki M, Lusa S. Stress and cognitive performance of fire fighters during smoke-diving. Stress Med. 1994;10:63–68. doi:10.1002/smi.2460100111
   Google Scholar
• Kuboyama T, Tohda C, Komatsu K. Effects of ashwagandha (roots of Withania somnifera) on neurodegenerative diseases. Biol. Pharm. Bull. 2014;37:892–897.
   Google Scholar
• Kurapati KRV., Atluri VSR, Samikkannu T, Nair MPN.. Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) reverses β-Amyloid1-42 induced toxicity in human neuronal cells: implications in HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND). PLoS One. 2013;8:1–15. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0077624
   Google Scholar
• Lichstein KL, Riedel BW, Richman SL. The Mackworth clock test: a computerized version. J Psychol. 2000;134:153–161. doi:10.1080/00223980009600858
   Google Scholar
• Mackenzie CS, Smith MC, Hasher L, Leach L, Behl P. Cognitive functioning under stress: evidence from informal caregivers of palliative patients. J Palliat Med. 2007;10:749–758. doi:10.1089/jpm.2006.0171
   Google Scholar
• McEwen BS., Sapolsky RM.. Stress and cognitive function. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 1995;5:205–216. doi:10.1016/0959-4388(95)80028-X
   Google Scholar
• Miller MA. The role of sleep and sleep disorders in the development, diagnosis, and management of neurocognitive disorders. Front Neurol. 2015;6:244.
   Google Scholar
• Miroddi M, Navarra M, Quattropani MC, Calapai F, Gangemi S, Calapai G. Systematic review of clinical trials assessing pharmacological properties of Salvia species on memory, cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease. CNS Neurosci Ther. 2014;20:485–495. doi:10.1111/cns.12270
   Google Scholar
• Mungas D. In-office mental status testing: a practical guide. Geriatrics. 1991;46:54–58, 63, 66.
   Google Scholar
• Nagashayana N, Sankarankutty P, Nampoothiri MRV, Mohan PK, Mohanakumar KP. Association of L-DOPA with recovery following Ayurveda medication in Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Sci. 2000;176:124–127. doi:10.1016/S0022-510X(00)00329-4
   Google Scholar
• Naidu, PS, Singh, A, Kulkarni, SK. Effect of Withania somnifera root extract on reserpine-induced orofacial dyskinesia and cognitive dysfunction. Phytother Res. 2006;20:140–146. doi:10.1002/ptr.1823
   Google Scholar
• Owen AM. The functional organization of working memory processes within human lateral frontal cortex: the contribution of functional neuroimaging. Eur J Neurosci. 1997;9:1329–1339.
   Google Scholar
• Pingali U, Pilli R, Fatima N. Effect of standardized aqueous extract of Withania somnifera on tests of cognitive and psychomotor performance in healthy human participants. Pharmacognosy Res. 2014;6:12–18. doi:10.4103/0974-8490.122912
   Google Scholar
• Prakash J, Chouhan S, Yadav SK, Westfall S, Rai SN, Singh SP. Withania somnifera alleviates parkinsonian phenotypes by inhibiting apoptotic pathways in dopaminergic neurons. Neurochem Res. 2014;39:2527–2536. doi:10.1007/s11064-014-1443-7
   Google Scholar
• RajaSankar S, Manivasagam T, Sankar V, Prakash S, Muthusamy R, Krishnamurti A, Surendran S. Withania somnifera root extract improves catecholamines and physiological abnormalities seen in a Parkinson's disease model mouse. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;125:369–373. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2009.08.003
   Google Scholar
• Schliebs R, Liebmann A, Bhattacharya S, Kumar A, Ghosal S, Bigl V. Systemic administration of defined extracts from Withania somnifera (Indian ginseng) and Shilajit differentially affects cholinergic but not glutamatergic and GABAergic markers in rat brain. Neurochem Int. 1997;30:181–190. doi:10.1016/S0197-0186(96)00025-3
   Google Scholar
• Sehgal N, Gupta A, Valli RK, Joshi SD, Mills JT, Hamel E, et al. Withania somnifera reverses Alzheimer's disease pathology by enhancing low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein in liver. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2012;109:3510–3515. doi:10.1073/pnas.1112209109
   Google Scholar
• Singh RH, Narsimhamurthy K, Singh G. Neuronutrient impact of Ayurvedic Rasayana therapy in brain aging. Biogerontology. 2008;9:369–374. doi:10.1007/s10522-008-9185-z
   Google Scholar
• Singh RH., Udupa KN. Clinical and experimental studies on Rasayana drugs and Rasayana therapy. New Delhi, India: Spec. Res. Monogr. Central Council of Research, Ayurveda Siddha (CCRAS), Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, 1993.
   Google Scholar
• Singh-Manoux A, Kivimaki M, Glymour MM, Elbaz A, Berr C, Ebmeier KP, et al. Timing of onset of cognitive decline: results from Whitehall II prospective cohort study. Brit Med J. 2012;344:d7622. doi:10.1136/bmj.d7622
   Google Scholar
• Todd JJ, Marois R. Capacity limit of visual short-term memory in human posterior parietal cortex. Nature. 2004;428:751–754. doi:10.1038/nature02466
   Google Scholar
• Tombaugh TN. Trail making test A and B: Normative data stratified by age and education. Arch Clin Neuropsychol. 2004;19:203–214. doi:10.1016/S0887-6177(03)00039-8
   Google Scholar
• Ven Murthy MR, Ranjekar KP, Ramassamy C, Deshpande M. Scientific basis for the use of Indian Ayurvedic medicinal plants in the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders: 1. Ashwagandha. Cent. Nerv. Syst. Agents Med. Chem. 2010;10:238–246.
   Google Scholar
• Verma SK, Kumar A. Therapeutic uses of Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha) with a note on withanolides and its pharmacological actions. Asian J Pharm Clin Res. 2011;4(1):1–4.
   Google Scholar
• Vinutha B, Prashanth D, Salma K, Sreeja SL, Pratiti D, Padmaja R, et al. Screening of selected Indian medicinal plants for acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;109:359–363. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2006.06.014
   Google Scholar
• Wechsler D, Gurappa P. WMS-III India: Wechsler memory scale (3rd Ed.). Bangalore, India: The Psychological Corporation, 2009.
   Google Scholar
• Wechsler D, Scale WM. WMS-III. Wechsler memory scale (3rd Ed.). San Antonio, TX: Psychol. Corp, 1997.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization (WHO). WHO monographs on selected medicinal plants, Vol. 4. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, 2009.
   Google Scholar