Phonological processing and phonics: Towards an understanding of their relationship to each other and to reading development

References

• Ackerman , P. T. and Dykman , R. A. 1993 . Phonological processes, confrontational naming, and immediate memory in dyslexia . Journal of Learning Disabilities , 26 : 597 – 609 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adams , G. and Engelmann , S. 1996 . Research on Direct Instruction: 25 years beyond DISTAR. , Seattle, WA : Educational Achievement Systems .
   Google Scholar
• Adams , M. J. 1990 . Beginning to read: Thinking & learning about print. , Cambridge, MA : MIT Press .
   Google Scholar
• Alexander , A. W. , Anderson , H. G. , Heilman , P. C. , Voeller , K. K. S. and Torgesen , J. K. 1991 . Phonological awareness training and remediation of analytic decoding deficits in a group of severe dyslexics . Annals of Dyslexia , 41 : 193 – 206 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alexander , K. , Entwisle , D and Olsen . 1997 . Early schooling and inequality: Socioeconomic disparities in children's learning. , London : Falmer Press .
   Google Scholar
• American Federation of Teachers (No Date). Building on the best: Learning from what works [On‐Line]. Available: http://www.aft.org/Edissues/whatworlcs/index.htm (http://www.aft.org/Edissues/whatworlcs/index.htm)
   Google Scholar
• American Institutes for Research . 1999 . An educators’ guide to schoolwide reform [On‐Line]. Available at: www.aasa.org/Reform/index.htm
   Google Scholar
• American Psychological Association . October 1993 . Final report of the task force on promotion and dissemination of psychological procedures. , October , New York : American Psychological Association, Division of Clinical Psychologists (Division 12) .
   Google Scholar
• American Psychological Association . 1994 . Publication manual of the American Psychological Association , (4th ed.). , Washington, DC : Author .
   Google Scholar
• Arter , J. A. and Jenkins , J. R. V. 1979 . Differential diagnosis‐prescriptive teaching: A critical appraisal . Review of Educational Research , 49 : 517 – 555 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Australian Government House of Representatives Enquiry . 1993 . The Literacy Challenge. , Canberra : Australian Printing Office .
   Google Scholar
• Badian , N. A. 1994 . Preschool prediction: Orthographic and phonological skills and reading . Annals of Dyslexia , 44 : 3 – 25 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bird , C. , Fitzgerald , E. and Fitzgerald , M. 1994 . Teacher Monitoring Program. , Bondi, NSW : The Mastery Learning Centre .
   Google Scholar
• Bowers , P. G. 1995 . Tracing symbol naming speed's unique contributions to reading disabilities over time . Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal , 7 : 189 – 216 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowers , P. G. and Swanson , L. B. 1991 . Naming speed deficits in reading disability: Multiple measures of a singular process . Journal of Experimental Child Psychology , 51 : 195 – 219 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowers , P. G. and Wolf , M. 1993 . Theoretical links among naming speed, precise timing mechanisms and orthographic skill in dyslexia . Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal , 5 (1) : 69 – 85 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowey , J. A. 1996 . Phonological sensitivity as a proximal contributor to phonological recoding skills in children's reading . Australian Journal of Psychology , 48 (3) : 113 – 118 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowey , J. A. , Cain , M. T. and Ryan , S. M. 1992 . A reading‐level design study of phonological skills underlying Fourth‐Grade children's word reading difficulties . Child Development , 63 : 999 – 1011 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brigance , A. H. 1992 . Comprehensive Inventory of Basic Skills. , Melbourne, , Australia : Hawker Brownlow .
   Google Scholar
• Bruck , M. 1990 . Word‐recognition skill of adults with childhood diagnoses of dyslexia . Developmental Psychology , 26 : 439 – 454 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bruck , M. 1992 . Persistence of dyslexics’ phonological awareness deficits . Developmental Psychology , 28 : 874 – 886 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burt , J. S. and Butterworth , P. 1996 . Spelling in adults: Orthographic transparency, learning new letter string and reading accuracy . European Journal of Cognitive Psychology , 8 (1) : 3 – 43 .
   Google Scholar
• Byrne , B. 1996 . The learnability of the alphabetic principle: Children's initial hypotheses about how print represents spoken speech . Applied Psycholinguistics , 17 : 401 – 426 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Byrne , B. and Fielding‐Barnsley , R. 1991 . Evaluation of a program to teach phonemic awareness to young children . Journal of Educational Psychology , 83 : 451 – 455 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Byrne , B. and Fielding‐Barnsley , R. 1993 . Evaluation of a program to teach phonemic awareness to young children: A one‐year follow‐up . Journal of Educational Psychology , 85 : 104 – 111 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Byrne , B. and Fielding‐Barnsley , R. 1995 . Evaluation of a program to teach phonemic awareness to young children: A 2‐ and 3‐ year follow‐up and a new preschool trial . Journal of Educational Psychology. , 87 : 488 – 503 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cantwell , A. and Rubin , H. 1992 . Object naming ability of adults with written language difficulties . Annals of Dyslexia , 42 : 179 – 195 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carnine , D. 1995 . Trustworthiness, useability, and accessibility of educational research . Journal of Behavioral Education , 5 : 251 – 258 .
   Google Scholar
• Castles , I. 1994 . SEIFA: Socio‐economic indexes for areas. , Canberra : Australian Government Printer .
   Google Scholar
• Clay , M. 1979 . The early detection of reading difficulties , (2nd & 3rd eds). , Auckland, , NZ : Heinemann . 1985
   Google Scholar
• Cohen , J. 1988 . Statistical power analysis for the behavioural sciences , (2nd ed.) , Hillsdale, NJ : Lawrence Earlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Committee on Education and the Workforce (2000). The Reading Deficit Elimination Act H.R. 4307. [On‐Line] Available at: http://www.house.gov/led_workforce/press/hr4307i ntro41300.htm (http://www.house.gov/led_workforce/press/hr4307i ntro41300.htm)
   Google Scholar
• Cook , T.D. and Campbell , D.T. 1979 . Quosi‐experimentation: Design and analysis issues for field settings, , Boston : Houghton‐Mifflin .
   Google Scholar
• Cornelissen , P. L. , Hansen , P. C. , Bradley , L. and Stein , J. F. 1996 . Analysis of perceptual confusions between nine sets of consonnant‐vowel sound in normal and dyslexic adults . Cognition , 59 : 275 – 306 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cornwall , A. 1992 . The relationship of phonological awareness, rapid naming and verbal memory to severe reading and ‐disability . Journal of Learning Disabilities , 25 : 532 – 538 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crowder , R. and Wagner , R. 1992 . The psychology of reading: An introduction. , New York : Oxford .
   Google Scholar
• Davidson , M. and Jenkins , J. R. 1994 . Effects of phonemic processes on word reading and spelling . Journal of Educational Research , 87 : 143 – 157 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis , J. M. and Spring , C. 1990 . The Digit Naming Speed Test: Its power and incremental validity in identifying children with specific reading disabilities . Psychology in the Schools , 27 : 15 – 22 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Denckla , M. B. and Rudel , R. 1976 . Rapid automatised naming (RAN): Dyslexia differentiated from other learning disabilities . Neuropsychologia , 14 : 471 – 479 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Department for Education and Employment . 1998 . The National Literacy Strategy: Framework for Teaching. , London : Crown .
   Google Scholar
• Dixon , R. , Engelmann , S. , Bauer , M. M. , Steely , D. and Wells , T. 1998 . Spelling Mastery , Chicago : Science Research Associates .
   Google Scholar
• Ehri , L C. 1987 . Learning to read and spell words . Journal of Reading Behavior , 19 : 5 – 31 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ehri , L. C. 1994 . “ Development of the ability to read words: Update ” . In Theoretical models and processes of reading , (4th ed. , Edited by: Ruddell , R. , Ruddell , M. and Singer , H. 323 – 358 . Newark, DE : International Reading Association .
   Google Scholar
• Ehri , L. C. 1995 . Phases of development in learning to read word by sight . Journal of Research in Reading , 18 (2) : 116 – 125 .
   Google Scholar
• Elbro , C. , Nielsen , I. and Petersen , D. K. 1994 . Dyslexia in adults: Evidence for deficits in non‐word reading and in the phonological representation of lexical items . Annals of Dyslexia , 44 : 205 – 226 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Engelmann , S. and Bruner , E. C. 1984 . Reading Mastery Fast Cycle I, II. , Chicago : Science Research Associates .
   Google Scholar
• Engelmann , S. 1980 . Toward the design of faultless instruction: The theoretical basis of concept analysis . Educational Technology, , Feb : 28 – 36 .
   Google Scholar
• Engelmann , S. , Haddox , P. and Bruner , E. 1983 . Teach Your Child To Read In 100 Easy Lessons , New York : Simon & Schuster .
   Google Scholar
• Engelmann , S. , Becker , W. C. , Carnine , D. and Gersten , R. 1988 . The Direct Instruction Follow Through model: Design and outcomes . Education and Treatment of Chidren , 11 : 303 – 317 .
   Google Scholar
• Engelmann , S. , Hanner , S. and Johnson , G. 1999 . Corrective Reading: Series guide , Chicago : McMillan/McGraw Hill .
   Google Scholar
• Foorman , B. R. , Francis , D. J. , Beeler , T. , Winikates , D. and Fletcher , J. 1997 . Early interventions for children with reading problems: Study designs and preliminary findings . Learning Disabilities: A Multidisciplinary Journal , 8 : 63 – 71 .
   Google Scholar
• Gaskins , I. W. , Ehri , L. C. , Cress , C. , O'Hara , C. and Donnelly , K. 1996 . Procedures for word learning: Making discoveries about words . The Reading Teacher , 50 : 312 – 327 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gathercole , S. E. , Willis , C. and Baddeley , A. D. 1991 . Differentiating phonological memory and awareness of rhyme: Reading and vocabulary development in children . British Journal of Psychology , 82 : 387 – 406 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gersten , R. , Baker , S. and Lloyd , J.W. 2000 . Designing high quality research in special education: Group experimental design . Journal of Special Education , 34 : 2 – 27 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gibbs , S. 1996 . Categorical speech perception and phonological awareness in the early stages of learning to read . Language & Communication , 16 (1) : 37 – 60 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gillam , R. B. and van Week , A. 1996 . Phonological awareness training and short‐term working memory: Clinical implication . Topics in Language Disorders , 17 (1) : 72 – 81 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goulandris , N. and Snowling , M. 1995 . “ Assessing reading skills ” . In Learning to read: Psychology in the classroom , Edited by: Funnell , E. and Stuart , M. Cambridge, MA : Blackwell .
   Google Scholar
• Grossen , B. 1995 . The research base for Reading Mastery, , SRA . [On‐line]. Available: http:/darkwing.Uoregon.Edu/∼adrep/rdgtxt.htm
   Google Scholar
• Gtossen , B. 1996 . The story behind Project Follow Through . Effective School Practices, , 15 (1)
   Google Scholar
• Hall , S.L. and Moats , L.C. 1999 . Straight talk about reading: How parents can make a difference during the early years. , Chicago, ILL : Contemporary Books .
   Google Scholar
• Hatcher , P.J. , Hulme , C. and Ellis , A.W. 1994 . Ameliorating early reading failure by integrating the teaching of reading and phonological skills. The phonological linkage hypothesis . Child Development , 65 : 41 – 57 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hempenstall , K. 1995 . The Picture Naming Test , Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology . Unpublished manuscript.
   Google Scholar
• Hempenstall , K. 1996 . The gulf between educational research and policy: The example of direct instruction and whole language . Behaviour Change, , 13 (1) : 33 – 46 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hill , P. May 24 1995 . School effectiveness and improvement: Present realities and future possibilities. , May 24 , Melbourne University . Dean's Lecture: Paper presented at. [On Line] Available at http://www.edfac.unimelb.edu.au/Seminars/dea n_lec/list.html.
   Google Scholar
• Hoover , W. A. and Gough , P. B. 1990 . The simple view of reading . Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal , 2 : 127 – 160 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hulme , C. and Roodenrys , S. 1995 . Practitioner review: Verbal working memory development and its disorders . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry , 36 : 373 – 398 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunter , J. E. and Schmidt , F. L. 1990 . Methods of meta‐analysis: Correcting error and bias in research findings. , Newbury Park, CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Hurford , D. P. , Schauf , J. D. , Bunce , L. , Blaich , T. and Moore , K. 1994 . Early identification of children at risk for reading disabilities . Journal of Learning Disabilities , 27 : 371 – 382 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jorm , A. F. , Share , D. , McLean , R. and Matthews , R. 1984 . Phonological recoding and learning to read: A longitudinal study . Applied Psycholinguistics , 5 : 201 – 207 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Landerl , K. , Frith , U. and Wimmer , H. 1996 . Intrusion of orthographic knowledge on phoneme awareness: Strong in normal readers, weak in dyslexic readers . Applied Psycholinguistics , 17 (1) : 1 – 14 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lehto , J. 1995 . Working memory and school achievement in the ninth form . Educational Psychology , 15 : 271 – 281 .
   Google Scholar
• Lemoine , H. E. , Levy , B. A. and Hutchinson , A. 1993 . Increasing the naming speed of poor readers: Representations formed across repetitions . Journal of Experimental Child Psychology , 55 : 297 – 328 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lindamood , C. and Lindamood , P. C. 1969 . Auditory Discrimination in Depth. , USA : Riverside Publishers .
   Google Scholar
• Lindamood , C. , Bell , N. and Lindamood , P. 1992 . Issues in phonological awareness assessment . Annals of Dyslexia , 42 : 242 – 259 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lindamood , P. C. 1994 . “ Issues in researching the link between phonological awareness, learning disabilities, and spelling ” . In Frames of reference for the assessment of learning disabilities: New views on measurement issues , Edited by: Lyon , G. R. 351 – 374 . Baltimore, PH : Brookes Publishing Co. .
   Google Scholar
• Lovett , M. W. , Borden , S. L. , Lacerenza , L. , Frijters , J.C. , Steinbach , K.A. and De Palma , M. 2000 . Components of effective remediation for developmental reading disabilities: Combining phonological and strategy‐based instruction to improve outcomes . Journal of Educational Psychology , 92 : 263 – 283 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lovett , M. W. , Border , S. L. , De Luca , T. , Lacerenza , L. , Benson , N. J. and Brackstone , D. 1994 . Treating the core deficit of developmental dyslexia: Evidence of transfer of learning after phonologically‐ and strategy‐based reading training programs . Developmental Psychology , 30 : 805 – 822 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lovett , M. W. , Steinbach , K. A. and Frijters , J. C. 2000 . Remediating the core deficits of developmental reading disability: A double‐deficit perspective . Journal of Learning Disabilities , 33 : 334 – 342 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lyon , G. R. 1998 . Overview of reading and literacy initiatives. Statement to Committee on Labor and Human Resources [On‐Line] Available: http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubsljeffords.htm
   Google Scholar
• Lyon , G.R. 1999 . The NICHD research program in reading development, reading disorders and reading instruction [On‐Line]. Available: http://www.Wonline.org/ld_indepth/reading/ncld_summit99.html
   Google Scholar
• McGuinness , D. , McGuinness , C. and Donohue , J. 1995 . Phonological training and the alphabet principle: Evidence for reciprocal causality . Reading Research Quarterly , 30 (4) : 830 – 852 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moats , L. C. 1994c . “ Assessment of spelling in learning disabilities research ” . In Frames of reference for the assessment of learning disabilities: New views on measurement issues , Edited by: Lyon , G. R. 333 – 350 . Baltimore, PH : Brookes Publishing Co. .
   Google Scholar
• Mok , M. and Wheldall , K. 1995 . Some reservations about the use of analysis of covariance in educational research . Educational Psychology , 15 : 199 – 202 .
   Google Scholar
• Morais , J. , Alegria , J. and Content , A. 1987 . The relationship between segmental analysis and alphabetic literacy: An interactive view . Cahiers de Psychologie Cognitive , 7 : 1 – 24 .
   Google Scholar
• National Reading Panel . 2000 . Teaching children to read. [On‐Line] Available at: http://www.nationalreadingpanel.org.
   Google Scholar
• O'Connor , R. E. , Slocum , T. A. and Jenkins , J. R. 1995 . Transfer among phonological tasks in kindergarten: Essential intructional content . Journal of Educational Psychology , 87 : 202 – 217 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Shaughnessy , T.E. and Swanson , H.L. 2000 . A comparison of two reading interventions for children with reading disabilities . Journal of Learning Disabilities , 33 : 257 – 273 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paulesu , E. , Frith , U. , Snowling , M. , Gallagher , A. , Morton , J. , Frackowiak , R. S. J. and Frith , C. D. 1996 . Is developmental dyslexia a disconnecting syndrome? Evidence from PET scanning . Brain , 119 : 143 – 157 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perfetti , C. A. 1991 . “ Representations and awareness in the acquisition of reading competence ” . In Learning to read: Basic research and its implications , Edited by: Rieben , L. and Perfetti , C. A. 33 – 44 . NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Perfetti , C. A. 1992 . “ The representation problem in reading acquisition ” . In Reading acquisition. , Edited by: Gough , P. B. , Ehri , L. C. and Treitnan , R. 145 – 174 . NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Perfetti , C. A. , Beck , I. , Bell , L. C. and Hughes , C. 1987 . Phonemic knowledge and learning to read are reciprocal: A longitudinal study of first grade children . Merrill‐Palmer Quarterly , 33 (3) : 283 – 319 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Public Accounts and Estimates Committee . 1999 . Report on the 1999–2000 Victorian Budget Estimates [On‐Line] Available at: http://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/paec/33Report.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Rist , M. C. 1992 . Learning by heart . The Executive Educator, , November : 12 – 19 .
   Google Scholar
• Rubin , H. , Rotella , T. , Schwartz , L. and Bernstein , S. 1991 . The effect of phonological analysis training on naming performance . Reading & Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal , 3 : 1 – 10 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sackett , D. J. , Rosenberg , W. M. C. , Gray , J. A. M. , Haynes , R. B. and Richardson , S. S. 1996 . Evidence based medicine: What it is and what it isn't . British Medical Journal , 312 : 71 – 72 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schacter , J. 1999 . Reading programs that Work: A review of programs for Pre‐Kindergarten to 4^thGrade [On‐Line] Available at: http://www.mff.org/edtech/publication.taf?_function=detail&Content_uid1=279
   Google Scholar
• Schneider , W. , Roth , E. and Ennemoser , M. 2000 . Training phonological skills and letter knowledge in children at risk for dyslexia: A comparison of three kindergarten intervention programs . Journal of Educational Psychology , 92 : 284 – 295 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shankweiler , D. , Lundquist , E. , Dreyer , L. G. and Dickinson , C. C. 1996 . Reading and spelling difficulties in high school students: Causes and consequences . Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal , 8 : 267 – 294 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Share , D. L. 1995 . Phonological receding and self‐teaching: Sine qua non of reading acquisition . Cognition , 55 : 151 – 218 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Share , D. L. and Stanovich , K. E. 1995 . Cognitive processes in early reading development: accommodating individual differences into a model of acquisition . Issues in Education , 1 (1) : 1 – 57 .
   Google Scholar
• Shaywitz , S.E. , Fletcher , J.M. , Holahan , J.M. , Shneider , A.E. , Marchione , K.E. , Stuebing , K.K. , Francis , D.J. , Pugh , K.R. and Shaywitz , B.A. 1999 . Persistence of dyslexia: The Connecticut longitudinal study at adolescence . Pediatrics , 104 : 1351 – 1339 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slavin , R. E. 1990 . Cooperative learning: Theory, research, and practice. , Englewood Cliffs, NJ : Prentice Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Snow , C.E. , Burns , S. and Griffin , P. , eds. Preventing reading difficulties in young children. Report of the National Research Council. [On‐Line] Available at http://www.nap.edu/readin‐groom/books/reading/.
   Google Scholar
• Snowling , M. J. and Hulme , C. 1991 . “ Speech processing and learning to spell ” . In Language and the creation of literacy , Edited by: Ellis , R. and Bowler , R. 33 – 39 . Baltimore : Orton Dyslexia Society .
   Google Scholar
• Snowling , M. J. , Goulandris , N. and Defty , N. 1996 . A longitudinal study of reading development in dyslexic children . Journal of Educational Psychology , 88 : 653 – 669 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spear‐Swerling , L. and Sternberg , R. J. 1994 . The road not taken: An integrative theoretical model of reading disability . Journal of Learning Disabilities , 27 : 91 – 103 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stahl , S. A. and Murray , B. A. 1994 . Defining phonological awareness and its relationship to early reading . Journal of Educational Psychology , 86 : 221 – 234 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanovich , K. E . 1986 . Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of individual differences in the acquisition of literacy . Reading Research Quarterly , 21 : 360 – 406 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanovich , K. E . 1991 . “ Changing models of reading and reading acquisition ” . In Learning to read , Edited by: Rieben , L. and Perfetti , C. A. 19 – 31 . Hillsdale, NJ : L.E.A. .
   Google Scholar
• Stanovich , K. E. 1994 . Constructivism in reading education . The Journal of Special Education , 28 : 259 – 274 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanovich , K. E. and Siegel , L. S. 1994 . Phenorypic performance profile of children with reading disabilities: A regression‐based test of the phonological‐core variable‐difference model . Journal of Educational Psychology , 86 (1) : 24 – 53 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• 1995 . Statistical Package for the Social Sciences [Computer Software] , Chicago, Il. : SPSS . (Version 6.1 for the Apple Macintosh)
   Google Scholar
• Stebbins , L. , St. Pierre , R. G. , Proper , E. C. , Anderson , R. B. and Cerva , T. R. 1977 . Education as experimentation: A planned variation model , Vol. IV , Cambridge, MA : Abt. Associates .
   Google Scholar
• Stodhard , S. E. and Hulme , C. 1992 . Reading comprehension difficulties in children . Reading and Writing , 4 : 245 – 256 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stone , J. E. 1996 . Developmentalism. An obscure but pervasive restriction on educational improvement . Education Policy Analysis Archives , April 23 [On‐line] 4, 1950 lines. Available: http://seamonkey.ed.asu.edu/epaa
   Google Scholar
• Tabachnick , B. G. and Fidell , L. S. 1996 . Using multivariate statistics , (3rd ed.) , New York : Harper Collins .
   Google Scholar
• Texas, Office of the Governor . 1996 . The Texas Reading Initiative: Mobilizing Resources for Literacy [On‐Line] Available at: http://www.governor.state.tx.us/_private/old/Reading/overview.html
   Google Scholar
• The 1999 Omnibus Appropriations Bill (1998). The Reading Excellence Act. pp. 956–1007. [On‐Line] Available at: http://www.house.gov/eeo. (http://www.house.gov/eeo.)
   Google Scholar
• Torgesen , J. K. and Bryant , B. 1994 . Test of Phonological Awareness. , Austin, TX : Pro‐Ed .
   Google Scholar
• Torgesen , J. K. , Morgan , S. T. and Davis , C. 1992 . Effects of two types of phonological awareness training on word learning in kindergarten children . Journal of Educational Psychology , 84 : 364 – 370 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Torgesen , J. K. , Wagner , R. J. and Rashotte , C. A. 1994 . Longitudinal studies of phonological processing & reading . Journal of Learning Disabilities , 27 : 276 – 286 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Torgesen , J. , Wagner , R. K. , Rashotte , C. , Alexander , A. and Conway , T. 1997 . Preventative and remedial interventions for children with severe reading disabilities . Learning Disabilities: A Multidisciplinary Journal , 8 : 51 – 61 .
   Google Scholar
• Treiman , R. 1993 . Beginning to spell , New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Troia , G.A. , Roth , F.P. and Yeni‐Komshian , G.H. 1996 . Word frequency and age effects in normally developing children's phonological processing . Journal of Speech and Hearing Research , 39 : 1099 – 1108 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vellutino , F. R. , Scanlon , D. M. and Spearing , D. 1995 . Semantic and phonological coding in poor and normal readers . Journal of Experimental Child Psychology , 59 : 76 – 123 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vellutino , F. R. , Scanlon , D. M. and Tanzman , M. S. 1994 . “ Components of reading ability. Issues and problems in operationalizing word identification, phonological coding, and orthographic coding ” . In Lyon, Frames of reference for the assessment of learning disabilities. New views on measurement issues , Edited by: Reid , G. 311 Baltimore : Brooks .
   Google Scholar
• Vellutino , F. R. , Scanlon , D. M. , Sipay , E. R. , Small , S. G. , Pratt , A. , Chen , R. and Denckla , M. B. 1996 . Cognitive profiles of difficult to remediate and readily remediated poor readers: Early intervention as a vehicle for distinguishing between cognitive and experiential deficits as basic causes of specific reading disability . Journal of Educational Psychology , 88 : 601 – 638 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wagner , R. K. and Torgesen , J. K. 1987 . The nature of phonological processing and its causal tole in the acquisition of reading skills . Psychological Bulletin , 101 : 192 – 212 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wagner , R. K. , Torgesen , J. K. and Rashotte , C. A. 1994 . Development of reading‐related phonological processing abilities: New evidence of bidirectional causality from a latent variable longitudinal study . Developmental Psychology, , 30 (1) : 73 – 87 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wagner , R. K. , Torgesen , J. K. , Laughon , P. , Simmons , K. and Rashotte , C. A. 1993 . Development of young readers’ phonological processing abilities . Journal of Educational Psychology , 85 : 83 – 103 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wechsler , D. 1991 . Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children , (3rd ed.) , San Antonio : Psychological Corporation .
   Google Scholar
• Weisberg , P. and Savard , C. F. 1993 . Teaching preschoolers to read: Don't stop between the sounds when segmenting words . Education & Treatment of Children , 16 (1) : 1 – 18 .
   Google Scholar
• White , W. A. T. 1988 . A meta‐analysis of the effects of direct instruction in special education . Education & Treatment of Children , 11 : 364 – 374 .
   Google Scholar
• Wiig , E. H. , Zureich , P. and Chan , H. H. 2000 . A clinical rationale for assessing rapid automatized naming in children with language disorders . Journal of Learning Disabilities , 33 : 359 – 371 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolf , M. 1991 . Naming speed and reading: The contribution of the cognitive neurosciences . Reading Research Quarterly , 26 : 123 – 141 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolf , M. and Bowers , P.G. 1999 . The “Double Deficit Hypothesis” for the developmental dyslexias . Journal of Educational Psychology , 91 : 1 – 24 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolf , M. and Bowers , P.G. 2000 . Naming‐speed processes and developmental reading disabilities: An introduction to the special issue on the double‐deficit hypothesis . Journal of Learning Disabilities , 33 : 322 – 341 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wood , F. B. and Felton , R. H. 1994 . Separate linguistic and attentional factors in the development of reading . Topics in Language Disorders , 14 : 42 – 57 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woodcock , R. W. 1987 . Woodcock Tests of Reading Mastery ‐Revised. , Minnesota : American Guidance Service .
   Google Scholar
• Yopp , H.K. 1988 . The validity & reliability of phonemic awareness tests . Reading Research Quarterly , 23 : 159 – 177 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar