How does language influence the radicalisation process? A systematic review of research exploring online extremist communication and discussion

References

• Abbasi, A., & Chen, H. (2005). Applying authorship analysis to extremist-group web forum messages. IEEE Intelligent Systems, 20(5), 67–75. https://doi.org/10.1109/MIS.2005.81
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agarwal, S., & Sureka, A. (2015). Using KNN and SVM based one-class classifier for detecting online radicalization on Twitter. Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Distributed Computing and Internet Technology, 8956(1), 431–442. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-14977-6_47
   Google Scholar
• Aly, A. (2017). Brothers, believers, Brave Mujahideen: Focusing attention on the audience of violent Jihadist preachers. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 40(1), 62–76. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2016.1157407
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Awan, I. (2017). Cyber-Extremism: Isis and the power of social media. Social Science and Public Policy, 54(1), 138–149. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12115-017-0114-0
   Google Scholar
• Badawy, A., & Ferrara, E. (2018). The rise of Jihadist propaganda on social networks. Journal of Computational Social Science, 1(1), 453–470. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42001-018-0015-z
   Google Scholar
• Bastug, M. F., Douai, A., & Akca, D. (2020). Exploring the ‘Demand Side’ of online radicalization: Evidence from the Canadian context. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 43(7), 616–637. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2018.1494409
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baugut, P., & Neumann, K. (2020). Online propaganda use during Islamist radicalization. Information. Communication & Society, 23(11), 1570–1592. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2019.1594333
   Google Scholar
• Benigni, M. C., Joseph, K., & Carley, K. M. (2017). Online extremism and the communities that sustain it: Detecting the ISIS supporting community on Twitter. PLoS ONE, 12(12), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0181405
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benson, D. C. (2014). Why the internet is not increasing terrorism. Security Studies, 23(2), 293–328. https://doi.org/10.1080/09636412.2014.905353
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bermingham, A., Conway, M., Mclnerney, L., & O’Hare, N. (2009). Combining social network analysis and sentiment analysis to explore the potential for online radicalisation. Advances in Social Network Analysis and Mining, 1(1), 231–236. https://doi.org/10.1109/ASONAM.2009.31
   Google Scholar
• Bouko, C., Naderer, B., Rieger, D., Ostaeyen, P. V., & Voue, P. (2021). Discourse patterns used by extremist Salafists on Facebook: Identifying potential triggers to cognitive biases in radicalized content. Critical Discourse Studies, 19, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405904.2021.1879185
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Braddock, K., & Horgan, J. (2016). Towards a guide for constructing and disseminating counternarratives to reduce support for terrorism. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 39(5), 381–404. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2015.1116277
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breidlid, T. (2021). Countering or contributing to radicalisation and violent extremism in Kenya? A critical case study. Critical Studies on Terrorism, 14(2), 225–246. https://doi.org/10.1080/17539153.2021.1902613
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caiani, M., & Parenti, L. (2009). The dark side of the Web: Italian right-wing extremist groups and the internet. South European Society and Politics, 14(3), 273–294. https://doi.org/10.1080/13608740903342491
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christmann, K. (2012). Preventing religious radicalisation and violent extremism: A systematic review of the research evidence. Youth justice board. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/396030/preventing-violent-extremism-systematic-review.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Conway, M. (2017). Determining the role of the internet in violent extremism and terrorism: Six suggestions for progressing research. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 40(1), 77–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2016.1157408
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conway, M., & Mclnerney, L. (2008). Jihadi video and auto-radicalisation: Evidence from an exploratory YouTube study. European Conference on Intelligence and Security Informatics, 5376(1), 108–118. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-89900-6_13
   Google Scholar
• Doosje, B., Moghaddam, F. M., Kruglanski, A. W., de Wolf, A., Mann, L., & Feddes, A. R. (2016). Terrorism, radicalization and de-radicalization. Current Opinion in Psychology, 11(1), 79–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.06.008
   Google Scholar
• Gagnon, A. (2020). Far-right framing processes on social media: The case of the Canadian and Quebec chapters of soldiers of Odin. Canadian Review of Sociology, 57(3), 356–378. https://doi.org/10.1111/cars.12291
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gallacher, J. D., Heerdink, M. W., & Hewstone, M. (2021). Online engagement between opposing political protest groups via social media is linked to physical violence of offline encounters. Social Media + Society, 7(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305120984445
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garg, A. X., Hackam, D., & Tonelli, M. (2008). Systematic review and meta-analysis: When one study is just not enough. Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology, 3(1), 253–260. https://doi.org/10.2215/CJN.01430307
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gattinara, P. C., O’Connor, F., & Lindekilde, L. (2018). Italy, no country for acting alone? Lone actor radicalisation in the Neo-fascist milieu. Perspectives on Terrorism, 12(6), 136–149. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/26544648.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Gerstendfeld, P. B., Grant, D. R., & Chiang, C. P. (2003). Hate online: A content analysis of extremist internet sites. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 3(1), 29–44. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-2415.2003.00013.x
   Google Scholar
• Grover, T., & Mark, G. (2019). Detecting potential warning behaviors of ideological radicalization in an alt-right subreddit. Thirteenth International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media, 13(1), 193–204. https://ojs.aaai.org/index.php/ICWSM/article/view/3221
   Google Scholar
• Huey, L. (2015). This is not your mother’s terrorism: Social media, online radicalization and the practice of political jamming. Journal of Terrorism Research, 6(2), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.15664/jtr.1159
   Google Scholar
• Klausen, J. (2015). Tweeting the jihad: Social media networks of western foreign fighters in Syria and Iraq. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 38(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2014.974948
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koehler, D. (2015). The radical online: Individual radicalisation processes and the role of the internet. Journal For Deradicalisation, 1(1), 116–134. http://journals.sfu.ca/jd/index.php/jd.
   Google Scholar
• Kruglanski, A. W., Gelfand, M. J., Belanger, J. J., Sheveland, A., Hetiarachchi, M., & Gunaratna, R. (2014). The psychology of radicalization and deradicalization: How significance quest impacts violent extremism. Political Psychology, 35(1), 69–93. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12163
   Google Scholar
• Kundnani, A. (2012). Radicalisation: The journey of a concept. Race & Class, 54(2), 3–25. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306396812454984
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCauley, C., & Moskalenko, S. (2014). Toward a profile of lone wolf terrorists: What moves an individual from radical opinion to radical action. Terrorism and Political Violence, 26(1), 69–85. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2014.849916
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCauley, C., & Moskalenko, S. (2017). Understanding political radicalization: The two-pyramids model.. American Psychologist, 72(3), 205–216. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000062
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Munn, Z., Peters, M. D. J., Stern, C., Tufanaru, C., McArthur, A., & Aromataris, E. (2018). Systematic review or scoping review? Guidance for authors when choosing between a systematic or scoping review approach. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 18(143), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-018-0611-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neumann, P. R. (2008). Chapter two: Recruitment grounds. The Adelphi Papers, 48(399), 21–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/05679320802686809
   Google Scholar
• Odag, O., Leiser, A., & Boehnke, K. (2019). Reviewing the role of the internet in radicalization processes. Journal For Deradicalization, 21(1), 261–300. https://journals.sfu.ca/jd/index.php/jd/article/view/289
   Google Scholar
• Patrick, S. A. (2014). Framing terrorism: Geography-based media coverage variations of the 2004 commuter train bombings in Madrid and the 2009 twin suicide car bombings in Baghdad. Critical Studies on Terrorism, 7(3), 379–393. https://doi.org/10.1080/17539153.2014.957009
   Google Scholar
• Phadke, S., & Mitra, T. (2020). Many faced hate: A cross platform study of content framing and information sharing by Online Hate Groups. CHI Conference on human factors in computing systems, Honolulu. Hawaii, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1145/3313831.3376456
   Google Scholar
• Riebe, T., Patsch, K., Kaufhold, M. A., Reuter, C., Dachselt, R., & Weber, G. (2018). From conspiracies to insults: A case study of radicalisation in social media discourse. Mensch und Computer 2018: Workshopband. (pp. 595–603). https://dl.gi.de/bitstream/handle/20.500.12116/16795/Beitrag_449_final__a.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Scrivens, R. (2021). Exploring radical right-wing posting behaviours online. Deviant Behaviour, 42(11), 1470–1484. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2020.1756391
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scrivens, R., Davis, G., & Frank, R. (2018). Searching for signs of extremism on the web: An introduction to sentiment-based identification of radical authors. Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression, 10(1), 39–59. https://doi.org/10.1080/19434472.2016.1276612
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stevick, E. D. (2020). Is racism a tactic? Reflections on susceptibility, salience, and a failure to prevent violent racist extremism. Prospects, 48(1), 39–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11125-019-09450-4
   Google Scholar
• Tawfik, G. M., Dila, K. A. S., Mohamed, M. Y. F., Tam, D. N. H., Kien, N. D., Ahmed, A. M., & Huy, N. T. (2019). A step by step guide for conducting a systematic review and meta-analysis with simulation data. Tropical Medicine and Health, 47(46), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41182-019-0165-6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Torregrosa, J., Thorburn, J., Lara-Cabrera, R., Camacho, D., & Trujillo, H. M. (2020). Linguistic analysis of pro-ISIS users on Twitter. Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression, 12(3), 171–185. https://doi.org/10.1080/19434472.2019.1651751
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vergani, M., Iqbal, M., llbahar, E., & Barton, G. (2020). The three Ps of radicalization: Push, pull and personal. A systematic scoping review of the scientific evidence about radicalization into violent extremism. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 43(10), 854. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2018.1505686
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Windsor, L. (2020). The language of radicalization: Female internet recruitment to participation in ISIS activities. Terrorism and Political Violence, 32(3), 506–538. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2017.1385457
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar