The September 2011 Sikkim Himalaya earthquake Mw 6.9: is it a plane of detachment earthquake?

References

• Acharya SK, Sastry MVA. 1979. Stratigraphy of Eastern Himalaya. Geol Surv India Misc Publ. 41:49–67.
   Google Scholar
• Acton CE, Priestley K, Mitra S, Gaur VK. 2011. Crustal structure of the Darjeeling–Sikkim Himalaya and southern Tibet. Geophys J Int. 184:829–852.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allègre CJ, Courtillot V, Tapponnier P, Hirn A, Mattauer M, Coulon C, Jaeger JJ, Achache J, Schärer U, Marcoux J, et al. 1984. Structure and evolution of the Himalaya-Tibet orogenic belt. Nature. 307:17–22.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson EM. 1951. The dynamics of faulting and dyke formation with applications to Britain. 2nd ed. London: Oliver and Boyd.
   Google Scholar
• Angelier J. 1975. Sur l’analyse de mrsures recueillies dans des sites failles: l’utilite d’une conformation entre les methods dynamiques et cinematiques. C R Acad Sci Paris, D. 284:1805–1808.
   Google Scholar
• Angelier J. 1989. From orientation to magnitudes in paleostress determination using fault slip data. J Struct Geol. 11:37–50.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Angelier J. 2002. Inversion of earthquake focal mechanisms to obtain the seismotectonic stress, IV: a new method free of choice among nodal planes. Geophys J Int. 150:588–609.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Angelier J, Baruah S. 2009. Seismotectonics in northeast India: a stress analysis of focal mechanism solutions of earthquakes and its kinematic implications. Geophys J Int. 178:303–326.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Banghar AR. 1991. Mechanism solution of Nepal-Bihar earthquake of August 20, 1988. J Geol Soc India. 37:25–30.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baruah S, Baruah S, Bora P, Duarah R, Kalita A, Biswas R, Gogoi N, Kayal JR. 2012a. Moment magnitude (MW) and local magnitude (ML) relationship for earthquakes innortheast India. Pure Appl Geophys. 169:1977–1988.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baruah S, Baruah S, Kalita A, Biswas R, Gogoi N, Gautam JL, Sanoujam M, Kayal JR. 2012b. Moment magnitude – local magnitude relationship for the earthquakes of the Shillong-Mikir plateau, northeastern India region: a new perspective. Geomatics Nat Hazards Risk. 3:365–375.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baruah S, Baruah S, Kayal JR. 2013. State of tectonic stress in Northeast India and adjoining South Asia region. Bull Seismol Soci Am. 103:894–910.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bilham R, Frederick B, Rebecca B, Gaur VK. 1998. Geodetic constraints on the translation and deformation of India: implications for future great Himalayan earthquakes. Curr Sci. 74:213–229.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• [BIS] Bureau of Indian Standards-1893. 2002. Indian standard criteria for earthquake resistant design of structures, 458 part 1 – general provisions and buildings. New Delhi: Bureau of Indian Standards.
   Google Scholar
• Brown RJS, Korringa J. 1975. On the dependence of the elastic properties of a porous rock on the compressibility of the pore fluid. Geophys. 40:608–616.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Catlos EJ, Dubey CS, Harrison TM, Edwards MA. 2004. Late Miocene movement within the Himalayan main central thrust shear zone, Sikkim, north-east. India J Metamorph Geol. 22:207–226.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• D’Amico S, Gervasi A, Guerra I, Neri G, Orecchio B, Presti D, Totaro C. 2012. Seismicity and focal mechanisms at the Calabro-Lucanian boundary along the Apennine chain (southern Italy), Rend. Online Soc Geol It. 21:778–779.
   Google Scholar
• D’Amico S, Orecchi B, Presti D, Neri G, Wu WN, Sandhu I, Zhu L, Herrmann RB. 2013. Source parameters of small and moderate earthquakes in the area of 2009 L’Aquila seismic sequence (central Italy). Phys Chem Earth. 63:77–91.
   Google Scholar
• D’Amico S, Orecchio B, Presti D, Zhu L, Herrmann RB, Neri G. 2010. Broadband waveform inversion of moderate earthquakes in the Messina straits, southern Italy. Phys Earth Planetary Inter. 179:97–106.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dasgupta S, Mukhopadhyay B, Mukhopadhyay M, Nandy DR. 2013. Role of transverse tectonics in the Himalayan collision: further evidences from two contemporary earthquakes. J Geol Soc India. 81:241–247.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dasgupta S, Mukhopadhyay M, Nandy DR. 1987. Active transverse features in the central portion of the Himalaya. Tectonophysics. 136:255–264.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De R, Kayal JR. 2003. Seismotectonic model of the Sikkim Himalaya: constraint from microearthquake surveys. Bull Seismol Soc Am. 93:1395–1400.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De R, Kayal JR. 2004. Seismic activity at the MCT in Sikkim Himalaya. Tectonophysics. 386:243–248.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Engdahl ER, van der Hillst R, Buland RP. 1998. Global teleseismic earthquake relocation with improved travel times and procedures for depth determination. Bull Seismol Soc Am. 88:3295–3314.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gahalaut VK. 2006. 2005 Kashmir earthquake: not a Kashmir Himalaya seismic gap event. Curr Sci. 90:507–508.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• [GSI] Geological Survey of India. 1993. Bihar-Nepal earthquake, August 20, 1988. In: Nandy DR, Choudhury AK, Chakraborty C, Narula PL, editors. Kolkata: Geological survey of India, Special Pub. 31; p. 1–104.
   Google Scholar
• [GSI] Geological Survey of India. 2000. Seismotectonic Atlas of India and its environs. In: Narula PL, Acharya SK, Banerjee J, editors. Kolkata: Geological survey of India, Special Pub.; p. 86.
   Google Scholar
• Holt WE, Ni JF, Wallace TC, Haines AJ. 1991. The active tectonics of the eastern Himalayan syntaxis and surrounding regions. J Geophys Res. 96:14,595–14,632.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ichihara H, Honda R, Mogi T, Hase H, Kamiyama H, Yamay Y, Ogawa Y. 2008. Resistivity structure around the focal area of the 2004 Rumoi-Nanbu earthquake (M 6.1), northern Hokkaido, Japan. Earth Planets Space. 60:883–888.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• INTACH. 2012. Earthquake damage assessment vulnerability of Sikkim's built heritage, Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage, New Delhi. Available from: http://www.intach.org/
   Google Scholar
• Jain AK, Singh S, Manickavasagam RM, Joshi M, Verma PK. 2003. HIMPROBE program: integrated studies on geology, petrology, geochemistry and geophysics of the Trans-Himalaya and Karakoram. In: Mahadeven TM, Arora BR, Gupta KR, editors. Indian continental lithosphere: emerging research trend. 53. Bangalore: Geological Society of India.
   Google Scholar
• Joshi A, Kumari P, Singh S, Sharma ML. 2012. Near-field and far-field simulation of accelerograms of Sikkim earthquake of September 18, 2011 using modified semi-empirical approach. Nat Hazards. 64:1029–1054.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joshi KC, Sengupta S, Kandpal GC. 2010. Macroseismic study of 20th May 2007 Sikkim Earthquake – its seismotectonics implications for the region. J Geol Soc India. 75:383–392.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kayal JR. 1996. Earthquake source process in northeast India: a review. J Himalayan Geol. 17:53–69.
   Google Scholar
• Kayal JR. 2001. Microearthquake activity in some parts of the Himalaya and the tectonic model. Tectonophysics. 339:331–351.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kayal JR. 2008. Microearthquake seismology and seismotectonics of South Asia. Germany: Springer; p. 503.
   Google Scholar
• Kayal JR. 2010. Himalayan tectonic model and the great earthquakes: an appraisal. Geomatics Nat Hazards Risk. 1:51–67.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kayal JR, Arefiev SS, Baruah S, Tatevossian R, Gogoi N, Sanoujam M, Gautam JL, Hazarika D, Borah D. 2010. The 2009 Bhutan and Assam felt earthquakes (Mw 6.3 and 5.1) at the Kopili fault in the northeast Himalaya region. Geomatics Nat Hazards Risk. 1:273–281.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kayal JR, De R, Chakraborty P. 1993. Microearthquakes at the main boundary thrust in eastern Himalaya and the present day tectonic model. Tectonophysics. 218:375–381.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kayal JR, Ram S, Singh OP, Chakraborty PK, Karunakar G. 2003. Aftershocks of the March 1999 Chamoli earthquake and seismotectonic structure of the Garhwal Himalaya. Bull Seismol Soc Am. 93:109–117.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• King GCP, Stein RS, Lin J. 1994. Static stress changes and the triggering of earthquakes. Bull Seismol Soc Am. 84:935–993.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ma KF, Chan CH, Stein RS. 2005. Response of seismicity to Coulomb stress triggers and shadows of the 1999 Mw = 7.6 Chi-Chi, Taiwan, earthquake. J Geophys Res. 110:B05S19, doi:10.1029/2004JB003389
   Google Scholar
• Mahajan AK, Gupta V, Thakur VC. 2012. Macroseismic field observations of 18 September 2011 Sikkim earthquake. Nat Hazards. 63:589–603.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michael AJ. 1984. Determination of stress from slip data: faults and folds. J Geophys Res. 89:11517–11526.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michael AJ. 1987. Stress rotation during the Coalinga aftershock sequence. J Geophys Res. 92:7963–7979.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mohan A, Windley BF, Searle MP. 1989. Geothermobarometry and development of inverted metamorphism in the Darjeeling–Sikkim region of the eastern Himalaya. J Metamorph Geol. 7:95–110.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monsalve G, Sheehan AF, Pandey MR, Rajanre S, Wu F. 2006. Seismicity and 1-D velocity structure of the Himalayan collision zone: results from the Himalayan Nepal Tibet SeismicExperiment (HIMNT). J Geophys Res. 111:B10301, doi:10.1029/2005JB004062
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mukhopadhyay M. 1984. Seismotectonics of transverse lineaments in the eastern Himalaya and its foredeep. Tectonophysics. 109:227–240.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakata T. 1989. Active fault of the Himalayas of India and Nepal. In: Malinconico Jr. LL, LillieR, editors. Tectonics of Western Himalayas. Geological Society of America. SpecialPaper, 232; p. 243–264.
   Google Scholar
• Nath SK, Vyas M, Pal I, Sengupta P. 2005. A seismic hazard scenario in the Sikkim Himalaya from seismotectonics, spectral amplification, source parameterization, and spectral attenuation laws using strong motion seismometry. J Geophys Res. 110:B01301, doi:10.1029/2004JB003199
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ni J, Barazangi M. 1984. Seismotectonics of the Himalayan collision zone: geometry of the underthrusting Indian plate beneath the Himalaya. J Geophys Res. 89:1147–1163.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patro P, Harinarayana T. 2009. Deep geoelctric structure of the Sikkim Himalaya (NE India) using magnetotelluric studies. Phys Earth Planetary Inter. 173:171–176.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pradhan R, Prajapati S, Chopra S, Kumar A, Bansal BK, Reddy CD. 2013. Causative source of Mw 6.9 Sikkim-Nepal border earthquake of September 2011: GPS baseline observations and strain analysis. J Asian Earth Sci. 70–71:179–192.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rai DC, Singhal V, Mondal G, Parool N, Pradhan T, Mitra K. 2012. The M 6.9 Sikkim(India–Nepal Border) earthquake of 18 September 2011. Curr Sci. 102:1437–1446.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rajendran K, Rajendran CP, Thulasiraman N, Andrews R, Sherpa N. 2011. The 18 September 2011, north Sikkim earthquake. Curr Sci. 101:1475–479.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ravi Kumar M, Hazarika P, Prasad GS, Singh A, Saha S. 2012. Tectonic implications of the September 2011 Sikkim earthquake and its aftershocks. Curr Sci. 102:788–792.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seeber L, Armbruster JG, Quittmeyer R. 1981. Seismicity and continental subduction in the Himalayan Arc. In: Gupta HK, Delany FM, editors. Zagros, Hindu Kush, Himalaya, geodynamic evolution, geodynamics series. Washington (DC): American Geophysical Union; p. 215–242.
   Google Scholar
• Sengupta A, Gupta S, Anbarasu K. 2010. Landslides – investigations and mitigation in eastern Himalayan region. J Indian Roads Congr. Paper No. 560, 133–142.
   Google Scholar
• Sharma ML, Sinvhal A, Singh Y, Maheshwari BK. 2013. Damage survey report for Sikkim earthquake of 18 September 2011. Seismol Res Lett. 84:49–56.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh DD, Gupta HK. 1980. Source dynamics of two great earthquakes of Indian Subcontinent: the Bihar-Nepal earthquake of January 15, 1934 and the Queta earthquake of May 30, 1935. Bull Seismol Soc Am. 70:757–773.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skempton AW. 1954. The pore water coefficient A and B. Geotechnique. 4:143–147.
   Google Scholar
• Stein RS, King GCP, Lin J. 1994. Stress triggering of the 1994 M = 6.7 Northridge, California earthquake by its predecessors. Science. 265:1432–1435.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thakur VC, Mahajan AK, Gupta V. 2012. Seismotectonics of 18 September 2011 Sikkim earthquake: a component of transcurrent deformation in eastern Himalaya. Himalayan Geol. 33:89–96.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tiwari VM, Vyghreswara Rao MBS, Misra DC, Singh B. 2006. Crustal structure across Sikkim, NE Himalay from new gravity and magnetic data. Earth Planet Sci Lett. 247:61–69.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toda S, Stein RS, Reasenberg PA, Dieterich JH. 1998. Stress transferred by the Mw = 6.5 Kobe, Japan, shock: effect on aftershocks and future earthquake probabilities. J GeophysRes. 103:24543–24565.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang Y, Huang F, Lai G. 2009. Research on Skempton's coefficient B based on the observation of groundwater of Changping station. Earthquake Sci. 22:631–638.
   Google Scholar
• Zalohar J, Vrabec M. 2007. Paleostress analysis of heterogeneous fault-slip data: the Gauss method. J Struct Geol. 29:1798–1810.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar