6,909
Views
7
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

Compilation of analytical methods to characterize and determine chitosan, and main applications of the polymer in food active packaging
Recopilación de métodos analíticos para la caracterización y determinación del quitosano y las principales aplicaciones del polímero en los envases activos alimentarios

, , , , , , , , , & show all
Pages 319-328 | Received 13 May 2011, Accepted 05 Jul 2011, Published online: 04 Nov 2011

References

  • Abdou , E. S. , Nagy , K. S.A. and Elsabee , M. Z. 2008 . Extraction and characterization of chitin and chitosan from local sources . Bioresource Technology , 99 : 1359 – 1367 .
  • Aiba , S. 1986 . Studies on chitosan: 1. Determination of the degree of N-acetylation of chitosan by ultraviolet spectrophotometry and gel permeation chromatography . International Journal of Biological Macromolecules , 8 : 173 – 176 .
  • AlSagheer , F.A. , Al-Sughayer , M. A. , Muslim , S. and Elsabee , M. Z. 2009 . Extraction and characterization of chitin and chitosan from marine sources in Arabian Gulf . Carbohydrate Polymers , 77 : 410 – 419 .
  • Anthonsen , M. W. , Vårum , K. M. and Smidsrød , O. 1993 . Solution properties of chitosans: Conformation and chain stiffness of chitosans with different degrees of N-acetylation . Carbohydrate Polymers , 22 : 193 – 201 .
  • Appendini , P. and Hotchkiss , J. H. 2002 . Review of antimicrobial food packaging . Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies , 3 : 113 – 126 .
  • Arcidiacono , S. and Kaplan , D. L. 1992 . Molecular weight distribution of chitosan isolated from Mucor rouxii under different culture and processing conditions . Biotechnology and Bioengineering , 39 : 281 – 286 .
  • Balázs , N. and Sipos , P. 2007 . Limitations of pH-potentiometric titration for the determination of the degree of deacetylation of chitosan . Carbohydrate Research , 342 : 124 – 130 .
  • Belalia , R. , Grelier , S. , Benaissa , M. and Coma , V. 2008 . New bioactive biomaterials based on quaternized chitosan . Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry , 56 : 1582 – 1588 .
  • Broussignac , P. 1968 . Chitosan: A natural polymer not well known by the industry . Chemie Industriel Genie Chimie , 99 : 1241 – 1247 .
  • Brugnerotto , J. , Lizardi , J. , Goycoolea , F. M. , Argüelles-Monal , W. , Desbrières , J. and Rinaudo , M. 2001 . An infrared investigation in relation with chitin and chitosan characterization . Polymer , 42 : 3569 – 3580 .
  • Cai , J. , Yang , J. , Du , Y. , Fan , L. , Qiu , Y. , Li , J. and Kennedy , J. F. 2006 . Purification and characterization of chitin deacetylase from Scopulariopsis brevicaulis . Carbohydrate Polymers , 65 : 211 – 217 .
  • Cardenas , G. , Carbrera , G. , Taboada , E. and Miranda , S. P. 2004 . Chitin characterization by SEM, FTIR, XRD, and 13C cross polarization/mass angle spinning NMR . Journal of Applied Polymer Science , 93 : 1876 – 1885 .
  • Carlstrom , D. 1957 . The crystal structure of α-chitin . TheJournal of Biophysical and Biochemical Cytology , 3 : 669 – 683 .
  • Chebotok , E. N. , Novikov , V. Y. and Konovalova , I. N. 2007 . Kinetics of base deacetylation of chitin and chitosan as influenced by their crystallinity . Russian Journal of Applied Chemistry , 80 : 1753 – 1758 .
  • Clark , G. L. and Smith , A. F. 1936 . X-ray diffraction studies of chitin, chitosan, and derivatives . The Journal of Physical Chemistry , 40 : 863 – 879 .
  • Curotto , E. and Aros , F. 1993 . Quantitative determination ofchitosan and the percentage of free amino groups . Analytical Biochemistry , 211 : 240 – 241 .
  • de Alvarenga , E.S. , de Oliveira , C.P. and Bellato , C. R. 2010 . An approach to understanding the deacetylation degree of chitosan . Carbohydrate Polymers , 80 : 1155 – 1160 .
  • Domard , A. and Rinaudo , M. 1983 . Preparation and characterization of fully deacetylated chitosan . International Journal of Biological Macromolecules , 5 : 49 – 52 .
  • Donald , H. D. and Hayes , E. R. 1988 . Determination of degree of acetylation of chitin and chitosan . Methods in Enzymology , 161 : 442 – 446 .
  • dos Santos , Z.M. , Caroni , A. L.P.F. , Pereira , M. R. , da Silva , D.R. and Fonseca , J. L.C. 2009 . Determination of deacetylation degree of chitosan: A comparison between conductometric titration and CHN elemental analysis . Carbohydrate Research , 344 : 2591 – 2595 .
  • Duarte , M. L. , Ferreira , M. C. , Marvão , M. R. and Rocha , J. 2002 . An optimised method to determine the degree of acetylation of chitin and chitosan by FTIR spectroscopy . International Journal of Biological Macromolecules , 31 : 1 – 8 .
  • Dutta , P. K. , Tripathi , S. , Mehrotra , M. K. and Dutta , J. 2009 . Perspectives for chitosan based antimicrobial films in food applications . Food Chemistry , 114 : 1173 – 1182 .
  • Errington , N. , Harding , S. E. , Vårum , K. M. and Illum , L. 1993 . Hydrodynamic characterization of chitosans varying in degree of acetylation . International Journal of Biological Macromolecules , 15 : 113 – 117 .
  • Fajardo , P. , Martins , J. T. , Fuciños , C. , Pastrana , L. , Teixeira , J. A. and Vicente , A. A. 2010 . Evaluation of a chitosan-based edible film as carrier of natamycin to improve the storability of Saloio cheese . Journal of Food Engineering , 101 : 349 – 356 .
  • Fernández Cervera , M. , Heinämäki , J. , Räsänen , M. , Maunu , S. L. , Karjalainen , M. , Nieto Acosta , O.M. … and Yliruusi , J. 2004 . Solid-state characterization of chitosans derived from lobster chitin . Carbohydrate Polymers , 58 : 401 – 408 .
  • Fimbeau , S. , Grelier , S. , Copinet , A. and Coma , V. 2006 . Novel biodegradable films made from chitosan and poly(lactic acid) with antifungal properties against mycotoxinogen strains . Carbohydrate Polymers , 65 : 185 – 193 .
  • Fisk , C. L. , Silver , A. M. , Strik , B. C. and Zhao , Y. 2008 . Postharvest quality of hardy kiwifruit (Actinidia arguta ‘Ananasnaya') associated with packaging and storage conditions . Postharvest Biology and Technology , 47 : 338 – 345 .
  • Flory , P. J. 1953 . Principles of polymer chemistry Ithaca , NY
  • Gamzazade , A. I. , Slimak , V. M. , Skljar , A. M. , Stykova , E. V. , Pavlova , S. S.A. and Rogozin , S. V. 1985 . Investigation ofthe hydrodynamic properties of chitosan solutions . Acta Polymerica , 36 : 420 – 424 .
  • Gartner , C. , Peláez , C. A. and López , B. L. 2010 . Characterization of chitin and chitosan extracted from shrimp shells by two methods . e-Polymers , 69 : 1 – 16 .
  • Gorbacheva , I. N. , Ovchinnikov , Y. K. , Gal'braikh , L. S. , Trofimov , N. A. and Mazhorov , V. V. 1998 . An X-ray study of the structure of chitosan . Polymer Science USSR , 30 : 2694 – 2698 .
  • Guaita , M. , Chiantore , O. , Munari , A. , Manaresi , P. , Pilati , F. and Toselli , M. 1991 . A general intrinsic viscosity-molecular weight relationship for linear polydisperse polymers – 3. Applicability to the evaluation of the Mark–Houwink–Sakurada k and a constants . European Polymer Journal , 27 : 385 – 388 .
  • Guinesi , L. S. and Gomes Cavalheiro , E.T. 2006 . The use of DSC curves to determine the acetylation degree of chitin/chitosan samples . Thermochimica Acta , 444 : 128 – 133 .
  • Gyliene , O. , Rekertas , R. and Salkauskas , M. 2002 . Removal of free and complexed heavy-metal ions by sorbents produced from fly (Musca domestica) larva shells . Water Research , 36 : 4128 – 4136 .
  • Hoagland , P. D. and Parris , N. 1996 . Chitosan/pectin laminated films . Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry , 44 : 1915 – 1919 .
  • Hong , P. Z. , Li , S. D. , Ou , C. Y. , Li , C. P. , Yang , L. and Zhang , C. H. 2007 . Thermogravimetric analysis of chitosan . Journal of Applied Polymer Science , 105 : 547 – 551 .
  • Inukai , Y. , Chinen , T. , Matsuda , T. , Kaida , Y. and Yasuda , S. 1998 . Selective separation of germanium(IV) by 2,3-dihydroxypropyl chitosan resin . Analytica Chimica Acta , 371 : 187 – 193 .
  • Jang , M. K. , Kong , B. G. , Jeong , Y. I. , Lee , C. H. and Nah , J. W. 2004 . Physicochemical characterization of α-chitin, β-chitin, and γ-chitin separated from natural resources . Journal of Polymer Science Part A: Polymer Chemistry , 42 : 3423 – 3432 .
  • JCPDS (Joint Committee on Powder Diffraction Standards) . 1988 . International centre for diffraction data , PCPDFWIN, ver. 2.00 .
  • Kasaai, M.R. (2008). A review of several reported procedures to determine the degree of N-acetylation for chitin and chitosan using infrared spectroscopy. Carbohydrate Polymers, 71, 497–508
  • Kasaai , M. R. 2009 . Various methods for determination of the degree of N-acetylation of chitin and chitosan: A review . Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry , 57 : 1667 – 1676 .
  • Kasaai , M. R. , Arul , J. and Charlet , G. 2000 . Intrinsic viscosity – molecular weight relationship for chitosan . Journal of Polymer Science Part B: Polymer Physics , 38 : 2591 – 2598 .
  • Kasaai , M. R. , Arul , J. , Chin , S. L. and Charlet , G. 1999 . The use of intense femtosecond laser pulses for the fragmentation of chitosan . Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology A: Chemistry , 120 : 201 – 205 .
  • Khan , T. A. , Peh , K. K. and Ch'ng , H. S. 2002 . Reporting degree of deacetylation values of chitosan: The influence of analytical methods . Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences , 5 : 205 – 212 .
  • Kim , H. S. 2004 . Thermodynamic studies of interaction between chitosan and metal ions by isothermal titration calorimetry (I) . Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry , 10 : 273 – 277 .
  • Kim , S. S. , Kim , S. H. and Lee , Y. M. 1996 . Preparation, characterization, and properties of β chitin and N-acetylatedβ chitin . Journal of Polymer Science Part B: Polymer Physics , 34 : 2367 – 2374 .
  • Kjøniksen , A. L. , Iversen , C. , Nyström , B. , Nakken , T. and Palmgren , O. 1998 . Light scattering study of semidilute aqueous systems of chitosan and hydrophobically modified chitosans . Macromolecules , 31 : 8142 – 8148 .
  • Kucukgulmez , A. , Celik , M. , Yanar , Y. , Sen , D. , Polat , H. and Kadak , A. E. 2011 . Physicochemical characterization of chitosan extracted from Metapenaeus stebbingi shells . Food Chemistry , 126 : 1144 – 1148 .
  • Kurita , K. 2006 . Chitin and chitosan: Functional biopolymers from marine crustaceans . Marine Biotechnology , 8 : 203 – 226 .
  • Lavertu , M. , Xia , Z. , Serreqi , A. N. , Berrada , M. , Rodriques , A. , Wang , A. D. … and Gupta , A. 2003 . A validated 1H NMR method for the determination of the degree of deacetylation of chitosan . Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis , 32 : 1149 – 1158 .
  • Li , J. , Du , Y. , Yang , J. , Feng , T. , Li , T. and Chen , P. 2005 . Preparation and characterisation of low molecular weight chitosan and chito-oligomers by a commercial enzyme . Polymer Degradation and Stability , 87 : 441 – 448 .
  • Lim , S. H. and Hudson , S. M. 2004 . Synthesis and antimicrobial activity of a water-soluble chitosan derivative with afiber-reactive group . Carbohydrate Research , 339 : 313 – 319 .
  • Liu , H. , Bao , J. , Du , Y. , Zhou , X. and Kennedy , J. F. 2006 . Effect of ultrasonic treatment on the biochemphysical properties of chitosan . Carbohydrate Polymers , 64 : 553 – 559 .
  • López , F. A. , Mercè , A. L.R. , Alguacil , F. J. and López-Delgado , A. 2008 . A kinetic study on the thermal behavior of chitosan . Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry , 91 : 633 – 639 .
  • Ma , G. , Qian , B. , Yang , J. , Hu , C. and Nie , J. 2010 . Synthesis and properties of photosensitive chitosan derivatives (1) . International Journal of Biological Macromolecules , 46 : 558 – 561 .
  • Manaresi , P. , Munari , A. , Pilati , F. and Marianucci , E. 1998 . A general intrinsic viscosity-molecular weights relationship for polydisperse polymers . European Polymer Journal , 24 : 575 – 578 .
  • Mazeau , K. , Winter , W. T. and Chanzy , H. 1994 . Molecular and crystal structure of a high-temperature polymorph of chitosan from electron diffraction data . Macromolecules , 27 : 7606 – 7612 .
  • Mima , S. , Miya , M. , Iwamoto , R. and Yoshikawa , S. 1983 . Highly deacetylated chitin and its properties . Journal of Applied Polymer Science , 28 : 1909 – 1917 .
  • Moller , H. , Grelier , S. , Pardon , P. and Coma , V. 2004 . Antimicrobial and physicochemical properties of chitosan-HPMC-based films . Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry , 52 : 6585 – 6591 .
  • Muzzareli , R. A.A. , Muzzarelli , C. , Tarsi , R. , Miliani , M. , Gabbanelli , F. and Cartolari , M. 2001 . Fungistatic activity of modified chitosans against Saprolegnia parasitica . Biomacromolecules , 2 : 165 – 169 .
  • Neto , C. G.T. , Giacometti , J. A. , Job , A. E. , Ferreira , F. C. , Fonseca , J. L.C. and Pereira , M. R. 2005 . Thermal analysis of chitosan based networks . Carbohydrate Polymers , 62 : 97 – 103 .
  • Nguyen , S. , Hisiger , S. , Jolicoeur , M. , Winnik , F. M. and Buschmann , M. D. 2009 . Fractionation and characterization of chitosan by analytical SEC and 1H NMR aftersemi-preparative SEC . Carbohydrate Polymers , 75 : 636 – 645 .
  • Ogawa , K. 1991 . Effect of heating an aqueous suspension of chitosan on the crystallinity and polymorphs . Agricultural and Biological Chemistry , 55 : 2375 – 2379 .
  • Ojagh , S. M. , Rezaei , M. , Razavi , S. H. and Hosseini , S. M.H. 2010 . Development and evaluation of a novel biodegradable film made from chitosan and cinnamon essential oil with low affinity toward water . Food Chemistry , 122 : 161 – 166 .
  • Okuyama , K. , Noguchi , K. , Miyazawa , T. , Yui , T. and Ogawa , K. 1997 . Molecular and crystal structure of hydrated chitosan . Macromolecules , 30 : 5849 – 5855 .
  • Ottøy , M. H. , Vårum , K. M. , Christensen , B. E. , Anthonsen , M. W. and Smidsrød , O. 1996 . Preparative and analytical size-exclusion chromatography of chitosans . Carbohydrate Polymers , 31 : 253 – 261 .
  • Pa , J. H. and Yu , T. L. 2001 . Light scattering study of chitosan in acetic acid aqueous solutions . Macromolecular Chemistry and Physics , 202 : 985 – 991 .
  • Paulino , A. T. , Simionato , J. I. , Garcia , J. C. and Nozaki , J. 2006 . Characterization of chitosan and chitin produced from silkworm crysalides . Carbohydrate Polymers , 64 : 98 – 103 .
  • Pawlak , A. and Mucha , M. 2003 . Thermogravimetric and FTIR studies of chitosan blends . Thermochimica Acta , 396 : 153 – 166 .
  • Pochanavanich , P. and Suntornsuk , W. 2002 . Fungal chitosan production and its characterization . Letters in Applied Microbiology , 35 : 17 – 21 .
  • Pogodina , N. V. , Pavlov , G. M. , Bushin , S. V. , Mel'Nikov , A. B. , Lysenko , Y. B. , Nud'Ga , L. A. … and Tsvetkov , V.N. 1986 . Conformational characteristics of chitosan molecules as demonstrated by diffusion-sedimentation analysis and viscosimetry . Polymer Science USSR , 28 : 251 – 259 .
  • Popa , M. I. , Lisa , G. and Aelenei , N. 2008 . Thermogravimetric characterization of chitosan/alginate microparticles loaded with different drugs . Polymer Bulletin , 61 : 481 – 490 .
  • Pourjavadi , A. , Mahdavinia , G. R. , Zohuriaan-Mehr , M. J. and Omidian , H. 2003 . Modified chitosan. I. Optimized cerium ammonium nitrate-induced synthesis of chitosan-graft-polyacrylonitrile . Journal of Applied Polymer Science , 88 : 2048 – 2054 .
  • Prashanth , K. V.H. , Kittur , F. S. and Tharanathan , R. N. 2002 . Solid state structure of chitosan prepared under different N-deacetylating conditions . Carbohydrate Polymers , 50 : 27 – 33 .
  • Prochazkova , S. , Vårum , K. M. and Ostgaard , K. 1999 . Quantitative determination of chitosans by ninhydrin . Carbohydrate Polymers , 38 : 115 – 122 .
  • Rao , D. G. 1993 . Studies on viscosity-molecular weight relationship of chitosan solutions . Journal of Food Science and Technology , 30 : 66 – 67 .
  • Ribeiro , C. , Vicente , A. A. , Teixeira , J. A. and Miranda , C. 2007 . Optimization of edible coating composition to retard strawberry fruit senescence . Postharvest Biology and Technology , 44 : 63 – 70 .
  • Rinaudo , M. 2006 . Chitin and chitosan: Properties and applications . Progress in Polymer Science , 31 : 603 – 622 .
  • Rinaudo , M. , Milas , M. and Dung , P. L. 1993 . Characterization of chitosan. Influence of ionic strength and degree of acetylation on chain expansion . International Journal of Biological Macromolecules , 15 : 281 – 285 .
  • Roberts , G. A.F. and Domszy , J. G. 1982 . Determination of the viscometric constants for chitosan . International Journal of Biological Macromolecules , 4 : 374 – 377 .
  • Rogovina , S. Z. , Akopova , T. A. and Vichoreva , G. A. 1998 . Investigation of properties of chitosan obtained by solid-phase and suspension methods . Journal of Applied Polymer Science , 70 : 927 – 933 .
  • Rosca , C. , Popa , M. I. , Lisa , G. and Chitanu , G. C. 2005 . Interaction of chitosan with natural or synthetic anionic polyelectrolytes. 1. The chitosan–carboxymethylcellulose complex . Carbohydrate Polymers , 62 : 35 – 41 .
  • Rúnarsson , O. V. , Holappa , J. , Malainer , C. , Steinsson , H. , Hjálmarsdóttir , M. , Nevalainen , T. and Másson , M. 2010 . Antibacterial activity of N-quaternary chitosan derivatives: Synthesis, characterization and structure activity relationship (SAR) investigations . European Polymer Journal , 46 : 1251 – 1267 .
  • Sannan , T. , Kurita , K. and Iwakura , Y. 1976 . Studies on chitin, 2: Effect of deacetylation on solubility . Makromolekulare Chemie , 177 : 3589 – 3600 .
  • Schatz , C. , Pichot , C. , Delair , T. , Viton , C. and Domard , A. 2003 . Static light scattering studies on chitosan solutions: From macromolecular chains to colloidal dispersions . Langmuir , 19 : 9896 – 9903 .
  • Sebti , I. , Chollet , E. , Degraeve , P. , Noel , C. and Peyrol , E. 2007 . Water sensitivity, antimicrobial, and physicochemical analyses of edible films based on HPMC and/or chitosan . Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry , 55 : 693 – 699 .
  • Shigemasa , Y. , Matsuura , H. , Sashiwa , H. and Saimato , H. 1996 . Evaluation of different absorbance ratios from infrared spectroscopy for analyzing the degree of deacetylation in chitin . International Journal of Biological Macromolecules , 18 : 237 – 242 .
  • Song , Q. , Zhang , Z. , Gao , J. and Ding , C. 2011 . Synthesis and property studies of N-carboxymethyl chitosan . Journal of Applied Polymer Science , 119 : 3282 – 3285 .
  • Sorlier , P. , Rochas , C. , Morfin , I. , Viton , C. and Domard , A. 2003 . Light scattering studies of the solution properties of chitosans of varying degrees of acetylation . Biomacromolecules , 4 : 1034 – 1040 .
  • Taboada , E. , Cabrera , G. and Cárdenas , G. 2004 . Synthesis and characterization of new arylamine chitosan derivatives . Journal of Applied Polymer Science , 91 : 807 – 812 .
  • Tan , S. C. , Khor , E. , Tan , T. K. and Wong , S. M. 1998 . The degree of deacetylation of chitosan: Advocating the first derivative UV-spectrophotometry method of determination . Talanta , 45 : 713 – 719 .
  • Tanford , C. 1961 . Physical chemistry of macromolecules , New York : Wiley .
  • Van Toan , N. 2009 . Production of chitin and chitosan from partially autolyzed shrimp shell materials . The Open Biomaterials Journal , 1 : 21 – 24 .
  • Vårum , K. J. , Egelandsdal , B. and Ellekjaer , M. R. 1995 . Characterization of partially N-acetylated chitosans by near infra-red spectroscopy . Carbohydrate Polymers , 28 : 187 – 193 .
  • Wang , J. , Jin , X. and Chang , D. 2009 . Chemical modification of chitosan under high-intensity ultrasound and properties of chitosan derivatives . Carbohydrate Polymers , 78 : 175 – 177 .
  • Wang , W. , Bo , S. , Li , S. and Qin , W. 1991 . Determination of the Mark–Houwink equation for chitosans with different degrees of deacetylation . International Journal of Biological Macromolecules , 13 : 281 – 285 .
  • Wang , X. and Liu , H. 2004 . Preparation, characterization and antimicrobial activity of chitosan–Zn complex . Carbohydrate Polymers , 56 : 21 – 26 .
  • Wei , X. , Cruz , J. and Gorski , W. 2002 . Integration ofenzymes and electrodes: Spectroscopic and electrochemical studies of chitosan-enzyme films . Analytical Chemistry , 74 : 5039 – 5046 .
  • Wong , D. W.S. , Gastineau , F. A. , Gregorski , K. S. , Tillin , S. J. and Pavlath , A. E. 1992 . Chitosan-lipid films: Microstructure and surface energy . Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry , 40 : 540 – 544 .
  • Xie , W. , Xu , P. , Wang , W. and Liu , Q. 2002 . Preparation and antibacterial activity of a water-soluble chitosan derivative . Carbohydrate Polymers , 50 : 35 – 40 .
  • Yang , T.Ch. , Chou , Ch.Ch. and Li , Ch.F. 2005 . Antibacterial activity of N-alkylated disaccharide chitosan derivatives . International Journal of Food Microbiology , 97 : 237 – 245 .
  • Yen , M. T. and Mau , J. L. 2004 . Physico-chemical properties of chitin from shiitake stipes and crab shells . Annual ofTainan Woman's College of arts and Technology , 23 : 229 – 240 .
  • Yen , M. T. and Mau , J. L. 2007a . Physico-chemical characterization of fungal chitosan from shiitake stipes . LWT–Food Science and Technology , 40 : 472 – 479 .
  • Yen , M. T. and Mau , J. L. 2007b . Selected physical properties of chitin prepared from shiitake stipes . LWT–Food Science and Technology , 40 : 558 – 563 .
  • Yen , M. T. , Yang , J. H. and Mau , J. L. 2009 . Physicochemical characterization of chitin and chitosan from crab shells . Carbohydrate Polymers , 75 : 15 – 21 .
  • Yomota , C. , Miyazaki , T. and Okada , S. 1993 . Determination of the viscometric constants for chitosan and the application of universal calibration procedure in its gel permeation chromatography . Colloid & Polymer Science , 271 : 76 – 82 .
  • Yui , T. , Imada , K. , Okuyama , K. , Obata , Y. , Suzuki , K. and Ogawa , K. 1994 . Molecular and crystal structure of theanhydrous form of chitosan . Macromolecules , 27 : 7601 – 7605 .
  • Zhang , Y. , Xue , C. , Xue , Y. , Gao , R. and Zhang , X. 2005 . Determination of the degree of deacetylation of chitin and chitosan by X-ray powder diffraction . Carbohydrate Research , 340 : 1914 – 1917 .
  • Zhang , Y. , Zhang , X. , Ding , R. , Zhang , J. and Liu , J. 2011 . Determination of the degree of deacetylation of chitosan by potentiometric titration preceded by enzymatic pretreatment . Carbohydrate Polymers , 83 : 813 – 817 .

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.