The human gut microbiota: Metabolism and perspective in obesity

References

• Clarke G, Stilling RM, Kennedy PJ, Stanton C, Cryan JF, Dinan TG. Minireview: gut microbiota: the neglected endocrine organ. Mol Endocrinol. 2014;28:1221–38. doi:10.1210/me.2014-1108. PMID:24892638.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marchesi JR, Adams DH, Fava F, Hermes GD, Hirschfield GM, Hold G, Quraishi MN, Kinross J, Smidt H, Tuohy KM, et al. The gut microbiota and host health: a new clinical frontier. Gut. 2016;65:330–9. doi:10.1136/gutjnl-2015-309990. PMID:1026338727.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ursell L, Haiser HJ, Van Treuren W, Garg N, Reddivari L, Vanamala J, Dorrestein PC, Turnbaugh PJ, Knight R. The intestinal metabolome: an intersection between microbiota and host. Gastroenterol. 2014;146:1470–6. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2014.03.001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Louis P, Young P, Holtrop G, Flint HJ. Diversity of human colonic butyrate-producing bacteria revealed by analysis of the butyryl-CoA:acetate CoA-transferase gene. Environ Microbiol. 2010;12:304–14. doi:10.1111/j.1462-2920.2009.02066.x. PMID:19807780.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Backhed F, Ley RE, Sonnenburg JL, Peterson DA, Gordon JI. Host bacterial mutualism in the human intestine. Science. 2005;307:1915–20 doi:10.1126/science.1104816. PMID:15790844.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neyrinck AM, Etxeberria U, Taminiau B, Daube G, van Hul M, Everard A, Cani PD, Bindels LB, Delzenne NM. Rhubarb extract prevents hepatic inflammation induced by acute alcohol intake, an effect related to the modulation of the gut microbiota. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2017;61:1500899. doi:10.1002/mnfr.201500899. PMID:26990039
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turnbaugh PJ, Ridaura VK, Faith JJ, Rey FE, Knight R, Gordon JI. The effect of diet on the human gut microbiome: a metagenomic analysis in humanized gnotobiotic mice. Sci Transl Med. 2009;1:6ra14. doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.3000322. PMID:20368178.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenblum S, Turnbaugh PJ, Borenstein E. Metagenomic systems biology of the human gut microbiome reveals topological shifts associated with obesity and inflammatory bowel disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2012;1099:594–9. doi:10.1073/pnas.1116053109.
   Google Scholar
• Ferrer M, Ruiz A, Lanza F, Haange SB, Oberbach A, Till H, Bargiela R, Campoy C, Segura MT, Richter M, et al. Microbiota from the distal guts of lean and obese adolescents exhibit partial functional redundancy besides clear differences in community structure. Environ Microbiol. 2013;15:211–26. doi:10.1111/j.1462-2920.2012.02845.x. PMID:22891823.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sekirov I, Russell SL, Antunes LC, Finlay BB. Gut microbiota in health and disease. Physiol Rev. 2010;90:859–904. doi:10.1152/physrev.00045.2009. PMID:20664075.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jandhyala SM, Talukdar R, Subramanyam C, Vuyyuru H, Sasikala M, Reddy DN. Role of the normal gut microbiota. World J Gastroenterol. 2015;21:8787–803. doi:10.3748/wjg.v21.i29.8787. PMID:26269668.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swidsinski A, Loening-Baucke V, Lochs H, Hale LP. Spatial organization of bacterial flora in normal and inflamed intestine: a fluorescence in situ hybridization study in mice. World J. Gastroenterol. 2005;11:1131–40. doi:10.3748/wjg.v11.i8.1131. PMID:15754393.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith K, McCoy KD, Macpherson AJ. Use of axenic animals in studying the adaptation of mammals to their commensal intestinal microbiota. Semin Immunol. 2007;19:59–69. doi:10.1016/j.smim.2006.10.002. PMID:17118672.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qin J, Li R, Raes J, Arumugam M, Burgdorf KS, Manichanh C. A human gut microbial gene catalogue established by metagenomic sequencing. Nature. 2010;464:59–65. doi:10.1038/nature08821. PMID:20203603.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ley RE, Turnbaugh PJ, Klein S, Gordon JI. Microbial ecology: human gut microbes associated with obesity. Nature. 2006;444:1022–3. doi:10.1038/4441022a. PMID:17183309.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hollister EB, Gao C, Versalovic J. Compositional and functional features of the gastrointestinal microbiome and their effects on human health. Gastroenterol. 2014;146:1449–58. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2014.01.052.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van de Pavert SA, Mebius RE. New insights into the development of lymphoid tissues. Nature Rev Immunol. 2010;10:664–74. doi:10.1038/nri2832.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pabst O, Herbrand H, Worbs T, Friedrichsen M, Yan S, Hoffmann MW, Körner H, Bernhardt G, Pabst R, Förster R. Cryptopatches and isolated lymphoid follicles: dynamic lymphoid tissues dispensable for the generation of intraepithelial lymphocytes. Eur J Immunol. 2005;35:98–107. doi:10.1002/eji.200425432. PMID:15580658.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Renz H, Brandtzaeg P, Hornef M. The impact of perinatal immune development on mucosal homeostasis and chronic inflammation. Nature Rev Immunol. 2012;12:9–23. doi:10.1038/nri3112.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouskra D, Brézillon C, Bérard M, Werts C, Varona R, Boneca IG, Eberl G. Lymphoid tissue genesis induced by commensals through NOD1 regulates intestinal homeostasis. Nature. 2008;456:507–10. doi:10.1038/nature07450. PMID:18987631.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brandl K, Schnab B. Is intestinal inflammation linking dysbiosis to gut barrier dysfunction during liver disease?. Expert Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2015;9:1069–76. doi:10.1586/17474124.2015.1057122. PMID:26088524.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaishnava S, Behrendt CL, Ismail AS, Eckmann L, Hooper LV. Paneth cells directly sense gut commensals and maintain homeostasis at the intestinal host-microbial interface. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2008;105:20858–63. doi:10.1073/pnas.0808723105. PMID:19075245.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uematsu S, Fujimoto K, Jang MH, Yang BG, Jung YJ, Nishiyama M, Sato S, Tsujimura T, Yamamoto M, Yokota Y, et al. Regulation of humoral and cellular gut immunity by lamina propria dendritic cells expressing Toll-like receptor 5. Nature Immunol. 2008;9:769–76. doi:10.1038/ni.1622.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frantz AL, Rogier EW, Weber CR, Shen L, Cohen DA, Fenton LA, Bruno ME, Kaetzel CS. Targeted deletion of MyD88 in intestinal epithelial cells results in compromised antibacterial immunity associated with downregulation of polymeric immunoglobulin receptor, mucin-2, and antibacterial peptides. Mucosal Immunol. 2012;5:501–12. doi:10.1038/mi.2012.23. PMID:22491177.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ivanov II, Atarashi K, Manel N, Brodie EL, Shima T, Karaoz U, Wei D, Goldfarb KC, Santee CA, Lynch SV, et al. Induction of intestinal Th17 cells by segmented filamentous bacteria. Cell. 2009;139:485–98. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2009.09.033. PMID:19836068.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kamada N, Seo SU, Chen GY, Núñez G. Role of the gut microbiota in immunity and inflammatory disease. Nature Rev Immunol. 2013;13:321–35. doi:10.1038/nri3430.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Kaer L, Parekh VV, Wu L. Invariant natural killer T cells: bridging innate and adaptive immunity. Cell Tissue Res. 2011;343:43–55. doi:10.1007/s00441-010-1023-3. PMID:20734065.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olszak T, An D, Zeissig S, Vera MP, Richter J, Franke A, Glickman JN, Siebert R, Baron RM, Kasper DL, et al. Microbial exposure during early life has persistent effects on natural killer T cell function. Science. 2012;336:489–93. doi:10.1126/science.1219328. PMID:22442383.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaptoge S, Di Angelantonio E, Pennells L, Wood AM, White IR, Gao P, Walker M, Thompson A, Sarwar N, Caslake M, et al. C-reactive protein, fibrinogen, and cardiovascular disease prediction. N Engl J Med. 2012;367:1310–20. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1107477. PMID:23034020.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spranger J, Kroke A, Mohlig M, Hoffmann K, Bergmann MM, Ristow M, Boeing H, Pfeiffer AF. Inflammatory cytokines and the risk to develop type 2 diabetes: results of the prospective population-based European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC)-Potsdam Study. Diabetes. 2003;52:812–7. doi:10.2337/diabetes.52.3.812. PMID:12606524.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cani PD, Amar J, Iglesias MA, Poggi M, Knauf C, Bastelica D, Neyrinck AM, Fava F, Tuohy KM, Chabo C, et al. Metabolic endotoxemia initiates obesity and insulin resistance. Diabetes. 2007;56:1761–72. doi:10.2337/db06-1491. PMID:17456850.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neal MD, Leaphart C, Levy R, Prince J, Billiar TR, Watkins S, Li J, Cetin S, Ford H, Schreiber A, Hackam DJ. Enterocyte TLR4 mediates phagocytosis and translocation of bacteria across the intestinal barrier. J Immunol. 2006;176:3070–9. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.176.5.3070. PMID:16493066.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vijay-Kumar M, Aitken JD, Carvalho FA, Cullender TC, Mwangi S, Srinivasan S, Sitaraman SV, Knight R, Ley RE, Gewirtz AT. Metabolic syndrome and altered gut microbiota in mice lacking Toll-like receptor 5. Science. 2010;328:228–31. doi:10.1126/science.1179721. PMID:20203013.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shi H, Kokoeva MV, Inouye K, Tzameli I, Yin H, Flier JS. TLR4 links innate immunity and fatty acid-induced insulin resistance. J Clin Invest. 2006;116:3015–25. doi:10.1172/JCI28898. PMID:17053832.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aguirre V, Uchida T, Yenush L, Davis R, White MF. The c-Jun NH(2)-terminal kinase promotes insulin resistance during association with insulin receptor substrate-1 and phosphorylation of Ser(307). J Biol Chem. 2000;275:9047–54. doi:10.1074/jbc.275.12.9047. PMID:10722755.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Al-Lahham SH, Peppelenbosch MP, Roelofsen H, Vonk RJ, Venema K. Biological effects of propionic acid in humans; metabolism, potential applications and underlying mechanisms. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2010;1801:1175–83. doi:10.1016/j.bbalip.2010.07.007. PMID:20691280.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin HV, Frassetto A, Kowalik EJ, Nawrocki AR, Lu MM, Kosinski JR, Hubert JA, Szeto D, Yao X, Forrest G, et al. Butyrate and propionate protect against diet-induced obesity and regulate gut hormones via free fatty acid receptor 3-independent mechanisms. PLoS One. 2012;7:e35240. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0035240. PMID:22506074.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamer HM, Jonkers D, Venema K, Vanhoutvin S, Troost FJ, Brummer RJ. Review article: the role of butyrate on colonic function. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2008;27:104–19. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2036.2007.03562.x. PMID:17973645.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kennedy A, Martinez K, Schmidt S, Mandrup S, Lapoint K, McIntosh MK. Antiobesity mechanisms of action of conjugated linoleic acid. J Nutr BioChem. 2010;21:171–9. doi:10.1016/j.jnutbio.2009.08.003. PMID:19954947.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belury MA. Dietary conjugated linoleic acid in health: physiological effects and mechanisms of action. Annu Rev Nutr. 2002;22:505–31. doi:10.1146/annurev.nutr.22.021302.121842. PMID:12055356.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turnbaugh PJ, Ley RE, Mahowald MA, Magrini V, Mardis ER, Gordon JI. An obesity-associated gut microbiome with increased capacity for energy harvest. Nature. 2006;444:1027–31. doi:10.1038/nature05414. PMID:17183312.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bäckhed F, Manchester JK, Semenkovich CF, Gordon JI. Mechanisms underlying the resistance to diet-induced obesity in germ-free mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2007;104:979–84. doi:10.1073/pnas.0605374104. PMID:17210919.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hong YH, Nishimura Y, Hishikawa D, Tsuzuki H, Miyahara H, Gotoh C, Choi KC, Feng DD, Chen C, Lee HG, et al. Acetate and propionate short chain fatty acids stimulate adipogenesis via GPCR43. Endocrinology. 2005;146:5092–9. doi:10.1210/en.2005-0545. PMID:16123168.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Macfarlane GT, Macfarlane S. Fermentation in the human large intestine: its physiologic consequences and the potential contribution of prebiotics. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2011;45:S120–S12. doi:10.1097/MCG.0b013e31822fecfe. PMID:21992950.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matias I, MarzoV Di. Endocannabinoids and the control of energy balance. Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2007;18:27–37. doi:10.1016/j.tem.2006.11.006. PMID:17141520.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lambert DM, Muccioli GG. Endocannabinoids and related N-acylethanolamines in the control of appetite and energy metabolism: emergence of new molecular players. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2007;10:735–44. doi:10.1097/MCO.0b013e3282f00061. PMID:18089956.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muccioli GG, Naslain D, Backhed F, Reigstad CS, Lambert DM, Delzenne NM, Cani PD. The endocannabinoid system links gut microbiota to adipogenesis. Mol Syst Biol. 2010;6:392. doi:10.1038/msb.2010.46. PMID:20664638.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luche E, Cousin B, Garidou L, Serino M, Waget A, Barreau C, André M, Valet P, Courtney M, Casteilla L, et al. Metabolic endotoxemia directly increases the proliferation of adipocyte precursors at the onset of metabolic diseases through a CD14-dependent mechanism. Mol Metabolis. 2013;2:281–91. doi:10.1016/j.molmet.2013.06.005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Velagapudi VR, Hezaveh R, Reigstad CS, Gopalacharyulu P, Yetukuri L, Islam S, Felin J, Perkins R, Borén J, Oresic M, et al. The gut microbiota modulates host energy and lipid metabolism in mice. J Lipid Res. 2010;51:1101–12. doi:10.1194/jlr.M002774. PMID:20040631.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tremaroli V, Backhed F. Functional interactions between the gut microbiota and host metabolism. Nature. 2012;489:242–9. doi:10.1038/nature11552. PMID:22972297.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sonnenburg JL, Chen CT, Gordon JI. Genomic and metabolic studies of the impact of probiotics on a model gut symbiont and host. PLoS Biol. 2006;4:e413 doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0040413. PMID:17132046.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ma H, Patti ME. Bile acids, obesity, and the metabolic syndrome. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol. 2014;28:573–83. doi:10.1016/j.bpg.2014.07.004. PMID:25194176.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Begley M, Gahan CG, Hill C. The interaction between bacteria and bile. FEMS Microbiol Rev. 2005;29:625–51. doi:10.1016/j.femsre.2004.09.003. PMID:16102595.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas C, Gioiello A, Noriega L, Strehle A, Oury J, Rizzo G, Macchiarulo A, Yamamoto H, Mataki C, Pruzanski M, et al. TGR5-mediated bile acid sensing controls glucose homeostasis. Cell Metab. 2009;10:167–77. doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2009.08.001. PMID:19723493.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pols TW, Nomura M, Harach T, Lo Sasso G, Oosterveer MH, Thomas C, Rizzo G, Gioiello A, Adorini L, Pellicciari R, et al. TGR5 activation inhibits atherosclerosis by reducing macrophage inflammation and lipid loading. Cell Metab. 2011; 14:747–57. doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2011.11.006. PMID:22152303.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cox HM, Tough IR, Woolston AM, Zhang L, Nguyen AD, Sainsbury A, Herzog H. Peptide YY is critical for acylethanolamine receptor Gpr119-induced activation of gastrointestinal mucosal responses. Cell Metab. 2010;11:532–42. doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2010.04.014. PMID:20519124.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fukumoto S, Tatewaki M, Yamada T, Fujimiya M, Mantyh C, Voss M, Eubanks S, Harris M, Pappas TN, et al. Short-chain fatty acids stimulate colonic transit via intraluminal 5-HT release in rats. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2003;284:R1269–1276. doi:10.1152/ajpregu.00442.2002. PMID:12676748.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neuman H, Debelius JW, Knight R, Koren O. Microbial endocrinology: the interplay between the microbiota and the endocrine system. FEMS Microbiol Rev. 2015;39:509–21. doi:10.1093/femsre/fuu010. PMID:25701044.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Queipo-Ortuno MI, Seoane LM, Murri M, Pardo M, Gomez-Zumaquero JM, Cardona F, Casanueva F, Tinahones FJ. Gut microbiota composition in male rat models under different nutritional status and physical activity and its association with serum leptin and ghrelin levels. PLoS One. 2013;8:e65465. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0065465. PMID:23724144.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parnell JA, Reimer RA. Weight loss during oligofructose supplementation is associated with decreased ghrelin and increased peptide YY in overweight and obese adults. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009;89:1751–9. doi:10.3945/ajcn.2009.27465. PMID:19386741.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ranganath LR, Beety JM, Morgan LM, Wright JW, Howland R, Marks V. Attenuated GLP-1 secretion in obesity: cause or consequence? Gut. 1996;38:916–9, 1996.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vrieze A, Holleman F, Zoetendal EG, de Vos WM, Hoekstra JB, Nieuwdorp M. The environment within: how gut microbiota may influence metabolism and body composition. Diabetologia. 2010;53:606–13. doi:10.1007/s00125-010-1662-7. PMID:20101384.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qin J, Li Y, Cai Z, Li S, Zhu J, Zhang F, Liang S, Zhang W, Guan Y, Shen D, et al. A metagenome-wide association study of gut microbiota in type 2 diabetes. Nature. 2012;490:55–60. doi:10.1038/nature11450. PMID:23023125.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samuel BS, Shaito A, Motoike T, Rey FE, Backhed F, Manchester JK, Hammer RE, Williams SC, Crowley J, Yanagisawa M, et al. Effects of the gut microbiota on host adiposity are modulated by the short-chain fatty-acid binding G protein-coupled receptor, Gpr41. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2008;105:16767–72. doi:10.1073/pnas.0808567105. PMID:18931303.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yadav H, Lee JH, Lloyd J, Walter P, Rane SG. Beneficial metabolic effects of a probiotic via butyrate-induced GLP-1 hormone secretion. J Biol Chem. 2013;288:25088–97. doi:10.1074/jbc.M113.452516. PMID:23836895.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gustafsson BE, Midtvedt T, Norman A. Isolated fecal microorganisms capable of 7-alpha-dehydroxylating bile acids. J Exp Med. 1966;123:413–32. doi:10.1084/jem.123.2.413. PMID:5325994.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iguchi Y, Yamaguchi M, Sato H, Kihira K, Nishimaki-Mogami T, Une M. Bile alcohols function as the ligands of membrane-type bile acid-activated G protein-coupled receptor. J. Lipid Res. 2010;51:1432–41. doi:10.1194/jlr.M004051. PMID:20023205.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watanabe M, Houten SM, Mataki C, Christoffolete MA, Kim BW, Sato H, Messaddeq N, Harney JW, Ezaki O, Kodama T, et al. Bile acids induce energy expenditure by promoting intracellular thyroid hormone activation. Nature. 2006;439:484–9. doi:10.1038/nature04330. PMID:16400329.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karlsson F, Tremaroli V, Nielsen J, Bäckhed F. Assessing the human gut microbiota in metabolic diseases. Diabetes. 2013;62:3341–9. doi:10.2337/db13-0844. PMID:24065795.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vrieze A, Van Nood E, Holleman F, Salojärvi J, Kootte RS, Bartelsman JF, Dallinga-Thie GM, Ackermans MT, Serlie MJ, Oozeer R, et al. Transfer of intestinal microbiota from lean donors increases insulin sensitivity in individuals with metabolic syndrome. Gastroenterol. 2012;134:913–6.e7. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2012.06.031.
   Google Scholar
• Gomes AC, Bueno AA, De Souza RG, Mota JF. Gut microbiota, probiotics and diabetes. Nutr J. 2014;13. doi:10.1186/1475-2891-13-60.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grandt D, Schimiczek M, Beglinger C, Layer P, Goebell H, Eysselein VE, Reeve JR Jr. Two molecular forms of peptide YY (PYY) are abundant in human blood: characterization of a radioimmunoassay recognizing PYY 1–36 and PYY 3–36. Regul Pept. 1994;51:151–9. doi:10.1016/0167-0115(94)90204-6. PMID:8059011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Batterham RL, Cohen MA, Ellis SM, Le Roux CW, Withers DJ, Frost GS, Ghatei MA, Bloom SR. Inhibition of food intake in obese subjects by peptide YY3–36. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:941–8. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa030204. PMID:12954742.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cani PD, Possemiers S, Van de Wiele T, Guiot Y, Everard A, Rottier O, Geurts L, Naslain D, Neyrinck A, Lambert DM, et al. Changes in gut microbiota control inflammation in obese mice through a mechanism involving GLP-2-driven improvement of gut permeability. Gut. 2009;58:1091–103. doi:10.1136/gut.2008.165886. PMID:19240062.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Psichas A, Sleeth ML, Murphy KG, Brooks L, Bewick GA, Hanyaloglu AC, Ghatei MA, Bloom SR, Frost G. The short chain fatty acid propionate stimulates GLP-1 and PYY secretion via free fatty acid receptor 2 in rodents. Int J Obes. 2015;39:424–9. doi:10.1038/ijo.2014.153.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riva A, Borgo F, Lassandro C, Verduci E, Morace G, Borghi E, Berry D. Pediatric obesity is associated with an altered gut microbiota and discordant shifts in Firmicutes populations. Environ MicroBiol. 2017;19:95–105. doi:10.1111/1462-2920.13463. PMID:27450202.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bervoets L, Hoorenbeeck KV, Kortleven I, Noten CV, Hens N, Vael C, Goossens H, Desager KN, Vankerckhoven V. Differences in gut microbiota composition between obese and lean children: a cross-sectional study. Gut Pathogens. 2013;5:10. doi:10.1186/1757-4749-5-10. PMID:23631345.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Munukka E, Wiklund P, Pekkala S, Völgyi E, Xu L, Cheng S, Lyytikäinen A, Marjomäki V, Alen M, Vaahtovuo J, et al. Women with and without metabolic disorder differ in their gut microbiota composition. Obesity. 2012;20:1082–7. doi:10.1038/oby.2012.8. PMID:22293842.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kasai C, Sugimoto K, Moritani I, Tanaka J, Oya Y, Inoue H, Tameda M, Shiraki K, Ito M, Takei Y, et al. Comparison of the gut microbiota composition between obese and non-obese individuals in a Japanese population, as analyzed by terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism and next-generation sequencing. BMC Gastroenterol. 2015;15:100. doi:10.1186/s12876-015-0330-2. PMID:26261039.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kocełak P, Zak-Gołąb A, Zahorska-Markiewicz B, Aptekorz M, Zientara M, Martirosian G, Chudek J, Olszanecka-Glinianowicz M. Resting energy expenditure and gut microbiota in obese and normal weight subjects. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2013;17:2816–21. PMID:24174366.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jumpertz R, Le DS, Turnbaugh PJ, Trinidad C, Bogardus C, Gordon JI, Krakoff J. Energy-balance studies reveal associations between gut microbes, caloric load, and nutrient absorption in humans. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011;94:58–65. doi:10.3945/ajcn.110.010132. PMID:21543530.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Armougom F, Henry M, Vialettes B, Raccah D, Raoult D. Monitoring bacterial community of human gut microbiota reveals an increase in Lactobacillus in obese patients and methanogens in anorexic patients. PLoS One. 2009;4(9):e7125. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0007125. PMID:19774074.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Million M, Thuny F, Angelakis E, Casalta JP, Giorgi R, Habib G, Raoult D. Lactobacillus reuteri and Escherichia coli in the human gut microbiota may predict weight gain associated with vancomycin treatment. Nutr Diabetes. 2013;3:e87. doi:10.1038/nutd.2013.28. PMID:24018615.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collado MC, Isolauri E, Laitinen K, Salminen S. Distinct composition of gut microbiota during pregnancy in overweight and normal-weight-women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008;88:894–9. doi:10.1093/ajcn/88.4.894. PMID:18842773.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collado MC, Isolauri E, Laitinen K, Salminen S. Effect of mother's weight on infant's microbiota acquisition, composition, and activity during early infancy: a prospective follow-up study initiated in early pregnancy. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;92:1023–30. doi:10.3945/ajcn.2010.29877. PMID:20844065.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duncan SH, Lobley GE, Holtrop G, Ince J, Johnstone AM, Louis P, Flint HJ. Human colonic microbiota associated with diet, obesity and weight loss. Int J Obes. 2008;32:1720–4. doi:10.1038/ijo.2008.155.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang H, DiBaise JK, Zuccolo A, Kudrna D, Braidotti M, Yu Y, Parameswaran P, Crowell MD, Wing R, Rittmann BE, Krajmalnik-Brown R. Human gut microbiota in obesity and after gastric bypass. PNAS. 2009;106:2365–70. doi:10.1073/pnas.0812600106. PMID:19164560.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kong L, Tap J, Aron-Wisnewsky J, Pelloux V, Basdevant A, Bouillot J, Zucker J, Doré J, Clément K. Gut microbiota after gastric bypass in human obesity: increased richness and associations of bacterial genera with adipose tissue genes. Am J Clin Nutr. 2013;98:16–24. doi:10.3945/ajcn.113.058743. PMID:23719559.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Damms-Machado A, Mitra S, Schollenberger AE, Kramer KM, Meile T, Königsrainer A, Huson DH, Bischoff SC. Effects of surgical and dietary weight loss therapy for obesity on gut microbiota composition and nutrient absorption. BioMed Res Int. 2015;2015:1–12. doi:10.1155/2015/806248.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Santacruz A, Collado MC, García-Valdés L, Segura MT, Martín-Lagos JA, Anjos T, Martí-Romero M, Lopez RM, Florido J, Campoy C, et al. Gut microbiota composition is associated with body weight, weight gain and biochemical parameters in pregnant women. Br J Nutr. 2010;104:83–92. doi:10.1017/S0007114510000176. PMID:20205964.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalliomaki M, Collado MC, Salminen S, Isolauri E. Early differences in fecal microbiota composition in children may predict overweight. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008;87:534–8. doi:10.1093/ajcn/87.3.534. PMID:18326589.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Remely M, Tesar I, Hippe B, Gnauer S, Rust P, Haslberger AG. Gut microbiota composition correlates with changes in body fat content due to weight loss. Benef Microbes. 2015;6:431–9. doi:10.3920/BM2014.0104. PMID:25609655.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Furet JP, Kong LC, Tap J, Poitou C, Basdevant A, Bouillot JL, Mariat D, Corthier G, Doré J, Henegar C, et al. Differential adaptation of human gut microbiota to bariatric surgery–induced weight loss links with metabolic and low-grade inflammation markers. Diabetes. 2010;59:3049–57. doi:10.2337/db10-0253. PMID:20876719.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwiertz A, Taras D, Schafer K, Beijer S, Bos NA, Donus C, Hardt PD. Microbiota and SCFA in lean and overweight healthy subjects. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2010;18:190–5. doi:10.1038/oby.2009.167. PMID:19498350.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Begley M, Hill C, Gahan CG. Bile salt hydrolase activity in probiotics. Appl Environ MicroBiol. 2006;72:1729–38 doi:10.1128/AEM.72.3.1729-1738.2006. PMID:16517616.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yin Y-N, Yu Q-F, Fu N, Liu X-W, Lu F-G. Effects of four Bifidobacteria on obesity in high-fat diet induced rats. World J Gastroenterol. 2010;16:3394–401. doi:10.3748/wjg.v16.i27.3394. PMID:20632441.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Basseri RJ, Basseri B, Pimentel M, Chong K, Youdim A, Low K, Hwang L, Soffer E, Chang C, Mathur R. Intestinal methane production in obese individuals is associated with a higher body mass index. Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2012;8:22–8.
   Google Scholar
• Wesolowska-Andersen A, Bahl MI, Carvalho V, Kristiansen K, Sicheritz-Pontén T, Gupta R, Licht TR. Choice of bacterial DNA extraction method from fecal material influences community structure as evaluated by metagenomic analysis. Microbiome. 2014;2:1–11. doi:10.1186/2049-2618-2-19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ejtahed HS, Mohtadi-Nia J, Homayouni-Rad A, Niafar M, Asghari-Jafarabadi M, Mofid V. Probiotic yogurt improves antioxidant status in type 2 diabetic patients. Nutrition. 2012;28:539–43. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2011.08.013. PMID:22129852.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kadooka Y, Sato M, Imaizumi K, Ogawa A, Ikuyama K, Akai Y, Okano M, Kagoshima M, Tsuchida T. Regulation of abdominal adiposity by probiotics (Lactobacillus gasseri SBT2055) in adults with obese tendencies in a randomized controlled trial. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2010;64:636–43. doi:10.1038/ejcn.2010.19. PMID:20216555.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gomes AC, de Sousa RG, Botelho PB, Gomes TL, Prada PO, Mota JF. The additional effects of a probiotic mix on abdominal adiposity and antioxidant status: a double-blind, randomized trial. Obesity. 2017;25:30–38. doi:10.1002/oby.21671. PMID:28008750.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang Y, Wang L, Zhang J, Li Y, He Q, Li H, Guo X, Guo J, Zhang H. Probiotic Lactobacillus casei Zhang ameliorates high-fructose-induced impaired glucose tolerance in hyperinsulinemia rats. Eur J Nutr. 2014;53:221–32. doi:10.1007/s00394-013-0519-5. PMID:23797890.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mai V, McCrary QM, Sinha R, Glei M. Associations between dietary habits and body mass index with gut microbiota composition and fecal water genotoxicity: an observational study in African American and Caucasian American volunteers. Nutr J. 2009;8:49. doi:10.1186/1475-2891-8-49. PMID:19845958.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Santacruz A, Marcos A, Wärnberg J, Martí A, Martin-Matillas M, Campoy C, Moreno LA, Veiga O, Redondo-Figuero C, Garagorri JM, et al. Interplay between weight loss and gut microbiota composition in overweight adolescents. Obesity. 2009;17:1906–15. doi:10.1038/oby.2009.112. PMID:19390523.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gauffin Cano P, Santacruz A, Moya Á, Sanz Y. Bacteroides uniformis CECT 7771 ameliorates metabolic and immunological dysfunction in mice with high-fat-diet induced obesity. PLoS One. 2012;7:e41079. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0041079. PMID:22844426.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rhee KJ, Sethupathi P, Driks A, Lanning DK, Knight KL. Role of commensal bacteria in development of gut-associated lymphoid tissues and preimmune antibody repertoire. J Immunol. 2004;172:1118–24 doi:10.4049/jimmunol.172.2.1118. PMID:14707086.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ochoa-Reparaz J, Mielcarz DW, Wang Y, Begum-Haque S, Dasgupta S, Kasper DL, Kasper LH. A polysaccharide from the human commensal Bacteroides fragilis protects against CNS demyelinating disease. Mucosal Immunol. 2010;3:487–95. doi:10.1038/mi.2010.29. PMID:20531465.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collins MD, Lawson PA, Willems A, Cordoba JJ, Fernandez-Garayzabal J, Garcia P, Cai J, Hippe H, Farrow JA. The phylogeny of the genus Clostridium: proposal of five new genera and eleven new species combinations. Int J Syst Bacteriol. 1994;44:812–26. doi:10.1099/00207713-44-4-812. PMID:7981107.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• De Graaf AA, Venema K. Gaining insight into microbial physiology in the large intestine: a special role for stable isotopes. Adv Microb Physiol. 2008;53:73–168. PMID:17707144.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Casas IA, Dobrogosz WJ. Validation of the probiotic concept: Lactobacillus reuteri confers broad-spectrum protection against disease in humans and animals. Microb Ecol Health Dis. 2000;12:247–85. doi:10.1080/08910600050216246-1.
   Google Scholar
• Lee HY, Park JH, Seok SH, Baek MW, Kim DJ, Lee KE, Paek KS, Lee Y, Park JH. Human originated bacteria, Lactobacillus rhamnosus PL60, produce conjugated linoleic acid and show anti-obesity effects in diet-induced obese mice. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2006;1761:736–44. doi:10.1016/j.bbalip.2006.05.007. PMID:16807088.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Le TK, Hosaka T, Le TT, Nguyen TG, Tran QB, Le TH, Pham XD. Oral administration of Bifidobacterium spp. improves insulin resistance, induces adiponectin, and prevents inflammatory adipokine expressions. Biomed Res. 2014;35:303–10. doi:10.2220/biomedres.35.303. PMID:25355437.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen J, Wang R, Li XF, Wang RL. Bifidobacterium adolescentis supplementation ameliorates visceral fat accumulation and insulin sensitivity in an experimental model of the metabolic syndrome. Br J Nutr. 2012;107:1429–34. doi:10.1017/S0007114511004491. PMID:21914236.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fukuda S, Furuya H, Suzuki Y, Asanuma N, Hino T. A new strain of Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens that has high ability to isomerize linoleic acid to conjugated linoleic acid. J Gen Appl MicroBiol. 2005;51:105–13 doi:10.2323/jgam.51.105. PMID:15942871.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boulangé CL, Neves AL, Chilloux J, Nicholson JK, Dumas ME. Impact of the gut microbiota on inflammation, obesity, and metabolic disease. Genome Med. 2016;8:42. doi:10.1186/s13073-016-0303-2. PMID:27098727.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flint HJ, Duncan SH, Scott KP, Louis P. Interactions and competition within the microbial community of the human colon: links between diet and health. Environ MicroBiol. 2007;9:1101–11. doi:10.1111/j.1462-2920.2007.01281.x. PMID:17472627.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar