References

• American Psychiatric Association [APA]. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Pub. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596
   Google Scholar
• Bunnell, B. E., Davidson, T. M., & Ruggiero, K. J. (2018). The Peritraumatic Distress Inventory: Factor structure and predictive validity in traumatically injured patients admitted through a level I trauma center. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 55, 8–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2018.03.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Choi, K. R., Heilemann, M. V., Fauer, A., & Mead, M. (2020). A second pandemic: Mental health spillover from the novel coronavirus (COVID-19). Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association, 26(4), 340–343. https://doi.org/10.1177/1078390320919803
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooper, S. E., van Dis, E. A. M., Hagenaars, M. A., Krypotos, A.-M., Nemeroff, C. B., Lissek, S., Eneglhard, I. M., & Dunsmoor, J. E. (2022). A meta-analysis of conditioned fear generalization in anxiety-related disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology, 47(9), 1652–1661. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41386-022-01332-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duits, P., Cath, D. C., Lissek, S., Hox, J. J., Hamm, A. O., Engelhard, I. M., van den Hout, M. A., & Baas, J. M. P. (2015). Updated meta-analysis of classical fear conditioning in the anxiety disorders. Depression and Anxiety, 32(4), 239–253. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22353
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunsmoor, J. E., Cisler, J. M., Fonzo, G. A., Creech, S. K., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2022). Laboratory models of post-traumatic stress disorder: The elusive bridge to translation. Neuron, 110(11), 1754–1776. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2022.03.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ehlers, A. (2006). Understanding and treating complicated grief: What can we learn from posttraumatic stress disorder? Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 13(2), 135–140. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2850.2006.00015.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. M. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behavior Research and Therapy, 38(4), 319–345. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(99)00123-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ehring, T., Zetsche, U., Weidacker, K., Wahl, K., Schönfeld, S., & Ehlers, A. (2011). The Perseverative Thinking Questionnaire (PTQ): Validation of a content-independent measure of repetitive negative thinking. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 42(2), 225–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2010.12.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finger, H., Goeke, C., Diekamp, D., Standvoß, K., & König, P. (2017). LabVanced: A unified JavaScript framework for online studies. International Conference on Computational Social Science (Cologne). https://www.labvanced.com/.
   Google Scholar
• Fofana, N. K., Latif, F., Sarfraz, S., Bilal, Bashir, M. F., & Komal, B. (2020). Fear and agony of the pandemic leading to stress and mental illness: An emerging crisis in the novel coronavirus (COVID-19) outbreak. Psychiatry Research, 291, 113230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113230
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franke, L. K., Rattel, J. A., Miedl, S., Danböck, S. K., Bürkner, P.-C., & Wilhelm, F. H. (2021). Intrusive memories as conditioned responses to trauma cues: An empirically supported concept? Behavior Research and Therapy, 143, 103848, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2021.103848
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Funkhouser, C. J., Klemballa, D. M., & Shankman, S. A. (2022). Using what we know about threat reactivity models to understand mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 153, 104082. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2022.104082
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gazendam, F. J., & Kindt, M. (2012). Worrying affects associative fear learning: A startle fear conditioning study. PLoS ONE, 7(4), e34882. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0034882
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayes, A. F. (2017). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach (2nd edition). Guilford Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Hilberdink, C. E., de Rooij, S. R., Olff, M., Bosch, J. A., & van Zuiden, M. (2022). Acute stress reactivity and intrusive memory development: A randomized trial using an adjusted trauma film paradigm. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 139, 105686. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2022.105686
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoffman, S. N., Urosevich, T. G., Kirchner, H. L., Boscarino, J. J., Dugan, R. J., Withey, C. A., Adams, R. E., Figley, C. R., & Boscarino, J. A. (2019). Grapheme-color synesthesia is associated with PTSD among deployed veterans: Confirmation of previous findings and need for additional research. International Journal of Emergency Mental Health, 21(1), 1–6. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6613655/.
   Google Scholar
• Holz, E., Lass-Hennemann, J., & Michael, T. (2017). Analogue PTSD symptoms are best predicted by state rumination. Journal of Experimental Psychopathology, 8(2), 192–213. https://doi.org/10.5127/jep.050915
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunt, C., Webler, R., Emich, A., Fhong, K., Hiljus, J., & Lissek, S. (2022). Pre-COVID-19 fear conditioning responses predict COVID-19-related anxiety: Evidence from an exploratory study. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 35(5), 547–556. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615806.2022.2033735
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Javakhishvili, J. D., Arnberg, F., Greenberg, N., Kazlauskas, E., Lotzin, A., & Xavier, M. (2022). Dealing with the COVID-19 pandemic in Europe: Five lessons from the European Society for Traumatic Stress Studies. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 13(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2022.2046330
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kessler, H., Holmes, E. A., Blackwell, S. E., Schmidt, A.-C., Schweer, J. M., Bücker, A., Herpertz, S., Axmacher, N., & Kehyayan, A. (2018). Reducing intrusive memories of trauma using a visuospatial interference intervention with inpatients with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 86(12), 1076–1090. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000340
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleim, B., Graham, B., Bryant, R. A., & Ehlers, A. (2013). Capturing intrusive re-experiencing in trauma survivors’ daily lives using ecological momentary assessment. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 122(4), 998–1009. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034957
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Landkroon, E., Mertens, G., & Engelhard, I. M. (2020). Devaluation of threat memory using a dual-task intervention does not reduce context renewal of fear. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 124, 103480. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2019.103480
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laposa, J. M., & Rector, N. A. (2012). The prediction of intrusions following an analogue traumatic event: Peritraumatic cognitive processes and anxiety-focused rumination versus rumination in response to intrusions. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 43(3), 877–883. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2011.12.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laux, L., Glanzmann, P., Schaffner, P., & Spielberger, C. (1981). Das State-Trait-Angstinventar (STAI): theoretische Grundlagen und Handanweisung. Beltz.
   Google Scholar
• LeDoux, J. E., & Hofmann, S. G. (2018). The subjective experience of emotion: A fearful view. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 19, 67–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2017.09.011
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leiner, D. J. (2014). SoSci survey (Version 2.5. 00-i). http://www.soscisurvey.com.
   Google Scholar
• Lissek, S., Pine, D. S., & Grillon, C. (2006). The strong situation: A potential impediment to studying the psychobiology and pharmacology of anxiety disorders. Biological Psychology, 72(3), 265–270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2005.11.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lommen, M. J. J., & Boddez, Y. (2022). Extinction learning as pretrauma vulnerability factor of posttraumatic stress: A replication study. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 13(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2022.2051334
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lonsdorf, T. B., & Merz, C. J. (2017). More than just noise: Inter-individual differences in fear acquisition, extinction and return of fear in humans-biological, experiential, temperamental factors, and methodological pitfalls. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 80, 703–728. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.07.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lotzin, A., Krause, L., Acquarini, E., Ajdukovic, D., Ardino, V., Arnberg, F., Böttche, M., Bragesjö, M., Dragan, M., Figueiredo-Braga, M., Gelezelyte, O., Grajewski, P., Anastassiou-Hadjicharalambous, X., Javakhishvili, J. D., Kazlauskas, E., Lenferink, L., Lioupi, C., Lueger-Schuster, B., Tsiskarishvili, L., … Adjust Study, C. (2021). Risk and protective factors, stressors, and symptoms of adjustment disorder during the COVID-19 pandemic – first results of the ESTSS COVID-19 pan-European ADJUST study. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 12(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2021.1964197
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLaughlin, K. A., Borkovec, T. D., & Sibrava, N. J. (2007). The effects of worry and rumination on affect states and cognitive activity. Behavior Therapy, 38(1), 23–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2006.03.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merz, C. J., Elzinga, B. M., & Schwabe, L. (2016). Stress, fear, and memory in healthy individuals. In J. Douglas Bremner (Ed.), Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (pp. 159–178). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118356142.ch8
   Google Scholar
• Michael, T., & Ehlers, A. (2007). Enhanced perceptual priming for neutral stimuli occurring in a traumatic context: Two experimental investigations. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45(2), 341–358. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2006.03.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michael, T., Ehlers, A., Halligan, S. L., & Clark, D. M. (2005). Unwanted memories of assault: What intrusion characteristics are associated with PTSD? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43(5), 613–628. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2004.04.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pace-Schott, E. F., Milad, M. R., Orr, S. P., Rauch, S. L., Stickgold, R., & Pitman, R. K. (2009). Sleep promotes generalization of extinction of conditioned fear. Sleep, 32(1), 19–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.5665/sleep/32.1.19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peyrot, C., Brouillard, A., Morand-Beaulieu, S., & Marin, M.-F. (2020). A review on how stress modulates fear conditioning: Let’s not forget the role of sex and sex hormones. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 129, 103615. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2020.103615
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rattel, J. A., Miedl, S. F., Franke, L. K., Grunberger, L. M., Blechert, J., Kronbichler, M., Spoormaker, V. I., & Wilhelm, F. H. (2019). Peritraumatic neural processing and intrusive memories: The role of lifetime adversity. Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging, 4(4), 381–389. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpsc.2018.12.010
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Robinson, E., Sutin, A. R., Daly, M., & Jones, A. (2022). A systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal cohort studies comparing mental health before versus during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. Journal of Affective Disorders, 296, 567–576. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2021.09.098
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schäfer, S. K., Sopp, M. R., Schanz, C. G., Staginnus, M., Göritz, A. S., & Michael, T. (2020). Impact of COVID-19 on public mental health and the buffering effect of a sense of coherence. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 89, 386–392. https://doi.org/10.1159/000510752
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scheveneels, S., Boddez, Y., & Hermans, D. (2021). Predicting clinical outcomes via human fear conditioning: A narrative review. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 142, 103870. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2021.103870
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schultebraucks, K., Rombold-Bruehl, F., Wingenfeld, K., Hellmann-Regen, J., Otte, C., & Roepke, S. (2019). Heightened biological stress response during exposure to a trauma film predicts an increase in intrusive memories. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 128(7), 645–657. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000440
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sopp, M. R., Streb, M., Brueckner, A. H., Schäfer, S. K., Lass-Hennemann, J., Mecklinger, A., & Michael, T. (2020). Prospective associations between intelligence, working memory capacity, and intrusive memories of a traumatic film: Potential mediating effects of rumination and memory disorganization. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 70, 101611. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2020.101611
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Streb, M., Conway, M. A., & Michael, T. (2017). Conditioned responses to trauma reminders: How durable are they over time and does memory integration reduce them? Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 57, 88–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2017.04.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watkins, E. R., & Roberts, H. (2020). Reflecting on rumination: Consequences, causes, mechanisms and treatment of rumination. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 127, 103573. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2020.103573
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wegerer, M., Blechert, J., Kerschbaum, H., & Wilhelm, F. H. (2013). Relationship between fear conditionability and aversive memories: Evidence from a novel conditioned-intrusion paradigm. PLoS One, 8(11), e79025. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0079025
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zuj, D. V., & Norrholm, S. D. (2019). The clinical applications and practical relevance of human conditioning paradigms for posttraumatic stress disorder. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 88, 339–351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2018.08.014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar