2,777
Views
16
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Study Protocol

The role of automatic defensive responses in the development of posttraumatic stress symptoms in police recruits: protocol of a prospective study

自动防御反应在新警员的创伤后应激障碍症状的作用:一个回溯研究的方案

El papel de las respuestas defensivas automáticas en el desarrollo de los síntomas de estrés postraumático en los reclutas de la policía: protocolo de un estudio prospectivo

ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, , & ORCID Icon show all
Article: 1412226 | Received 15 Aug 2017, Accepted 20 Nov 2017, Published online: 20 Dec 2017

References

  • Admon, R., Milad, M. R., & Hendler, T. (2013). A causal model of post-traumatic stress disorder: Disentangling predisposed from acquired neural abnormalities. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 17(7), 337–12. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2013.05.005
  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). DSM-V, Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA, US: American Psychiatric Publishing Inc.
  • Barlow, D. H. (2002). Anxiety and its disorders: The nature and treatment of anxiety and panic (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.
  • Boeschoten, M. A., Bakker, A., Jongedijk, R. A., Elzinga, B. M., Rademaker, A. R., & Olff, M. (2014). Clinician administered PTSD scale for DSM-5 – Dutch version. Diemen: Arq Psychotrauma Expert Groep.
  • Boeschoten, M. A., Bakker, A., Jongedijk, R. A., & Olff, M. (2014). PTSD checklist for DSM-5 – Dutch version. Diemen: Arq Psychotrauma Expert Group.
  • Bovin, M. J., Jager-Hyman, S., Gold, S. D., Marx, B. P., & Sloan, D. M. (2008). Tonic immobility mediates the influence of peritraumatic fear and perceived inescapability on posttraumatic stress symptom severity among sexual assault survivors. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 21(4), 402–409. doi:10.1002/jts.20372
  • Bradley, R., Greene, J., Russ, E., Dutra, L., & Westen, D. (2005). A multidimensional meta-analysis of psychotherapy for PTSD. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 162(2), 214–227. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.162.2.214
  • Carlier, I., & Gersons, B. (1992). Development of a scale for traumatic incidents in police work. Psychiatrica Fennica, 23, 59–70.
  • Carlier, I., Lamberts, R., & Gersons, B. (1997). Risk factors for posttraumatic stress symptomatology in police officers: A prospective analysis. Journal Nerv Mental Diseases, 185(8), 498–506. doi:10.1097/00005053-199708000-00004
  • Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24(4), 385. doi:10.2307/2136404
  • Coronas, R., Gallardo, O., Moreno, M. J., Suárez, D., García-Parés, G., & Menchón, J. M. (2011). Heart rate measured in the acute aftermath of trauma can predict post-traumatic stress disorder: A prospective study in motor vehicle accident survivors. European Psychiatry : the Journal of the Association of European Psychiatrists, 26(8), 508–512. doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2010.06.006
  • Critchley, H. D., Nagai, Y., Gray, M. A., & Mathias, C. J. (2011). Dissecting axes of autonomic control in humans: Insights from neuroimaging. Autonomic Neuroscience, 161(1–2), 34–42. doi:10.1016/j.autneu.2010.09.005
  • Daniels, J. K., McFarlane, A. C., Bluhm, R. L., Moores, K. A., Clark, C. R., Shaw, M. E., … Lanius, R. A. (2010). Switching between executive and default mode networks in posttraumatic stress disorder: Alterations in functional connectivity. Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience: JPN, 35(4), 258–266. doi:10.1503/jpn.090010
  • Den Ouden, H. E. M., Daw, N. D., Fernandez, G., Elshout, J. A., Rijpkema, M., Hoogman, M., … Cools, R. (2013). Dissociable effects of dopamine and serotonin on reversal learning. Neuron, 80(4), 1090–1100. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2013.08.030
  • Etkin, A., Egner, T., & Kalisch, R. (2011). Emotional processing in anterior cingulate and medial prefrontal cortex. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15(2), 85–93. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2010.11.004
  • Fanselow, M. S. (1994). Neural organization of the defensive behavior system responsible for fear. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 1(4), 429–438. http://doi.org/10.3758/BF03210947
  • Fox, A. S., Oler, J. A., Tromp, D. P. M., Fudge, J. L., & Kalin, N. H. (2015). Extending the amygdala in theories of threat processing. Trends in Neurosciences, 38(5), 319–329. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2015.03.002
  • Gersons, B. (1989). Patterns of PTSD among police officers following shooting incidents: A two-dimensional model and treatment implications. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 2(3), 247–257. doi:10.1002/(ISSN)1573-6598
  • Gladwin, T. E., Hashemi, M. M., Van Ast, V., & Roelofs, K. (2016). Ready and waiting: Freezing as active action preparation under threat. Neuroscience Letters, 619, 182–188. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2016.03.027
  • Greicius, M. D., Krasnow, B., Reiss, A. L., & Menon, V. (2003). Functional connectivity in the resting brain: A network analysis of the default mode hypothesis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 100(1), 253–258. doi:10.1073/pnas.0135058100
  • Hagenaars, M., Stins, J. F., & Roelofs, K. (2012). Aversive life events enhance human freezing responses. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 141(1), 98–105. doi:10.1037/a0024211
  • Harricharan, S., Rabellino, D., Frewen, P. A., Densmore, M., Théberge, J., McKinnon, M. C., … Lanius, R. A. (2016). fMRI functional connectivity of the periaqueductal gray in PTSD and its dissociative subtype. Brain and Behavior, 6(12), 1–16. http://doi.org/10.1002/brb3.579
  • Hayes, J. P., Hayes, S. M., & Mikedis, A. M. (2012). Quantitative meta-analysis of neural activity in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biology of Mood & Anxiety Disorders, 2(1), 9. http://doi.org/10.1186/2045-5380-2-9
  • Hermans, E. J., Henckens, M. J. A. G., Roelofs, K., & Fernández, G. (2013). Fear bradycardia and activation of the human periaqueductal grey. NeuroImage, 66, 278–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.10.063
  • Hoekstra, H. A., Fruyt, F., & Ormel, J. (2007). NEO-PI-R en NEO-FFI persoonlijkheidsvragenlijsten: Handleiding. Amsterdam: Hogrefe Uitgevers B.V.
  • Insel, T. R. (2014). The NIMH research domain criteria (RDoC) project: Precision medicine for psychiatry. American Journal of Psychiatry, 171(4), 395–397. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2014.14020138
  • Kearns, M. C., Ressler, K. J., Zatzick, D., & Rothbaum, B. O. (2012). Early interventions for PTSD: A review. Depression and Anxiety, 29(10), 833–842. doi:10.1002/da.21997
  • Klumpers, F., Raemaekers, M. A. H. L., Ruigrok, A. N. V., Hermans, E. J., Kenemans, J. L., & Baas, J. M. P. (2010). Prefrontal mechanisms of fear reduction after threat offset. Biological Psychiatry, 68(11), 1031–1038. http://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.09.006
  • Koch, S. B. J., Van Zuiden, M., Nawijn, L., Frijling, J. L., Veltman, D. J., & Olff, M. (2017). Decreased uncinate fasciculus tract integrity in male and female patients with PTSD: A diffusion tensor imaging study. Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience, 42(4), 160129. doi:10.1503/jpn.160129
  • Kozlowska, K., Walker, P., McLean, L., & Carrive, P. (2015). Fear and the defense cascade: Clinical implications and management. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 23(4), 263–287. doi:10.1097/HRP.0000000000000065
  • Lanius, R. A., & Olff, M. (2017). The neurobiology of PTSD. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 8(1), 1–3. doi:10.1080/20008198.2017.1314165
  • LeDoux, J. (1998). Fear and the brain: Where have we been, and where are we going? Biological Psychiatry, 44(12), 1229–1238. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(98)00282-0
  • Lommen, M. J. J., Engelhard, I. M., Sijbrandij, M., Van Den Hout, M. A., & Hermans, D. (2013). Pre-trauma individual differences in extinction learning predict posttraumatic stress. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 51(2), 63–67. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2012.11.004
  • Löw, A., Weymar, M., & Hamm, A. O. (2015). When threat is near, get out of here: Dynamics of defensive behavior during freezing and active avoidance. Psychological Science, 1–11. http://doi.org/10.1177/0956797615597332
  • Maguen, S., Metzler, T. J., McCaslin, S. E., Inslicht, S. S., Henn-Haase, C., Neylan, T. C., & Marmar, C. R. (2009). Routine work environment stress and PTSD symptoms in police officers. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 197(10), 754–760. doi:10.1097/NMD.0b013e3181b09068
  • Maren, S., Phan, K. L., & Liberzon, I. (2013). The contextual brain: Implications for fear conditioning, extinction and psychopathology. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 14(6), 417–428. doi:10.1038/nrn3492
  • Michopoulos, V., Norrholm, S. D., & Jovanovic, T. (2015). Diagnostic biomarkers for posttraumatic stress disorder: Promising horizons from translational neuroscience research. Biological Psychiatry, 78(5), 344–353. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.01.005
  • Milad, M. R., Orr, S. P., Lasko, N. B., Chang, Y., Rauch, S. L., & Pitman, R. K. (2008). Presence and acquired origin of reduced recall for fear extinction in PTSD: Results of a twin study. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 42(7), 515–520. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2008.01.017
  • Minassian, A., Maihofer, A. X., Baker, D. G., Nievergelt, C. M., Geyer, M. A., & Risbrough, V. B. (2015). Association of predeployment heart rate variability with risk of postdeployment posttraumatic stress disorder in active-duty marines. JAMA Psychiatry, 72(10), 979. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2015.0922
  • Mowrer, H. O. (1960). Learning theory and behavior. Hoboken, New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
  • Niermann, H. C. M., Figner, B., & Roelofs, K. (2017). Individual differences in defensive stress-responses: The potential relevance for psychopathology. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 14, 94–101. doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2017.01.002
  • Niermann, H. C. M., Ly, V., Smeekens, S., Figner, B., Riksen-Walraven, J. M., & Roelofs, K. (2015). Infant attachment predicts bodily freezing in adolescence: Evidence from a prospective longitudinal study. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 9, 263. http://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00263
  • Nieuwenhuys, A., Savelsbergh, G. J. P., & Oudejans, R. R. D. (2012). Shoot or don’t shoot? Why police officers are more inclined to shoot when they are anxious. Emotion, 12(4), 827–833. doi:10.1037/a0025612
  • Patel, R., Spreng, R. N., Shin, L. M. F., & Girard, T. A. (2012). Neurocircuitry models of posttraumatic stress disorder and beyond: A meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 36(9), 2130–2142. http://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.06.003
  • Pitman, R. K., Rasmusson, A. M., Koenen, K. C., Shin, L. M., Orr, S. P., Gilbertson, M. W., … Liberzon, I. (2012). Biological studies of post-traumatic stress disorder. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 13(11), 769–787. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3339
  • Pole, N., Neylan, T. C., Otte, C., Henn-Hasse, C., Metzler, T. J., & Marmar, C. R. (2009). Prospective prediction of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms using fear potentiated auditory startle responses. Biological Psychiatry, 65(3), 235–240. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.07.015
  • Rabellino, D., D’Andrea, W., Siegle, G., Frewen, P. A., Minshew, R., Densmore, M., & Lanius, R. A. (2017). Neural correlates of heart rate variability in ptsd during sub- and supraliminal processing of trauma-related cues. Human Brain Mapping, 4907, 4898–4907. http://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.23702
  • Rabellino, D., Densmore, M., Frewen, P. A., Théberge, J., & Lanius, R. A. (2016). The innate alarm circuit in post-traumatic stress disorder: Conscious and subconscious processing of fear- and trauma-related cues. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 248, 142–150. doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2015.12.005
  • Rabellino, D., Tursich, M., Frewen, P. A., Daniels, J. K., Densmore, M., Théberge, J., & Lanius, R. A. (2015). Intrinsic Connectivity Networks in post-traumatic stress disorder during sub- and supraliminal processing of threat-related stimuli. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 132(5), 365–378. doi:10.1111/acps.2015.132.issue-5
  • Raine, A., Dodge, K., Loeber, R., Gatzke-Kopp, L., Lynam, D., Reynolds, C., … Liu, J. (2006). The reactive-proactive aggression questionnaire: Differential correlates of reactive and proactive aggression in adolescent boys. Aggressive Behavior, 32(2), 159–171. http://doi.org/10.1002/ab.20115
  • Rauch, S. L., Shin, L. M., & Phelps, E. A. (2006). Neurocircuitry models of posttraumatic stress disorder and extinction: Human neuroimaging research–Past, present, and future. Biological Psychiatry, 60(4), 376–382. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.06.004
  • Roelofs, K. (2017). Freeze for action: Neurobiological mechanisms in animal and human freezing. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 372(1718), 20160206. doi:10.1098/rstb.2016.0206
  • Roelofs, K., Hagenaars, M., & Stins, J. (2010). Facing freeze: Social threat induces bodily freeze in humans. Psychological Science, 21(11), 1575–1581. doi:10.1177/0956797610378686
  • Roelofs, K., Minelli, A., Mars, R. B., Van Peer, J., & Toni, I. (2009). On the neural control of social emotional behavior. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 4(1), 50–58. doi:10.1093/scan/nsn036
  • Schwabe, L., Haddad, L., & Schachinger, H. (2008). HPA axis activation by a socially evaluated cold-pressor test. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 33(6), 890–895. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.03.001.
  • Seeley, W. W., Menon, V., Schatzberg, A. F., Keller, J., Glover, G. H., Kenna, H., … Greicius, M. D. (2007). Dissociable intrinsic connectivity networks for salience processing and executive control. The Journal of Neuroscience: the Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience, 27(9), 2349–2356. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3105-06.2007
  • Shaikh Al Arab, A., Guédon-Moreau, L., Ducrocq, F., Molenda, S., Duhem, S., Salleron, J., … Vaiva, G. (2012). Temporal analysis of heart rate variability as a predictor of post traumatic stress disorder in road traffic accidents survivors. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 46(6), 790–796. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.02.006
  • Sripada, R. K., King, A. P., Garfinkel, S. N., Wang, X., Sripada, C. S., Welsh, R. C., & Liberzon, I. (2012). Altered resting-state amygdala functional connectivity in men with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, 37(4), 241–249. doi:10.1503/jpn.110069
  • Sripada, R. K., King, A. P., Welsh, R. C., Garfinkel, S. N., Wang, X., Sripada, C. S., & Liberzon, I. (2012). Neural dysregulation in posttraumatic stress disorder: Evidence for disrupted equilibrium between salience and default mode brain networks. Psychosomatic Medicine, 74(9), 904–911. doi:10.1097/PSY.0b013e318273bf33
  • Stalder, T., & Kirschbaum, C. (2012). Analysis of cortisol in hair – State of the art and future directions. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 26(7), 1019–1029. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2012.02.002
  • Stanford, M. S., Houston, R. J., Villemarette-Pittman, N. R., & Greve, K. W. (2003). Premeditated aggression: Clinical assessment and cognitive psychophysiology. Personality and Individual Differences, 34(5), 773–781. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00070-3
  • Steudte-Schmiedgen, S., Kirschbaum, C., Alexander, N., & Stalder, T. (2016). An integrative model linking traumatization, cortisol dysregulation and posttraumatic stress disorder: Insight from recent hair cortisol findings. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 69, 124–135. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.07.015
  • Steudte-Schmiedgen, S., Stalder, T., Schönfeld, S., Wittchen, H.-U., Trautmann, S., Alexander, N., … Kirschbaum, C. (2015). Hair cortisol concentrations and cortisol stress reactivity predict PTSD symptom increase after trauma exposure during military deployment. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 59, 123–133. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.05.007
  • Steuwe, C., Daniels, J. K., Frewen, P. A., Densmore, M., Pannasch, S., Beblo, T., … Lanius, R. A. (2014). Effect of direct eye contact in PTSD related to interpersonal trauma: An fMRI study of activation of an innate alarm system. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 9(1), 88–97. http://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nss105
  • Thayer, J. F., Åhs, F., Fredrikson, M., Sollers, J. J., & Wager, T. D. (2012). A meta-analysis of heart rate variability and neuroimaging studies: Implications for heart rate variability as a marker of stress and health. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 36(2), 747–756. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2011.11.009
  • Thome, J., Densmore, M., Frewen, P. A., McKinnon, M. C., Théberge, J., Nicholson, A. A., … Lanius, R. A. (2017). Desynchronization of autonomic response and central autonomic network connectivity in posttraumatic stress disorder. Human Brain Mapping, 38(1), 27–40. http://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.23340
  • Van Ast, V. A., Vervliet, B., & Kindt, M. (2012). Contextual control over expression of fear is affected by cortisol. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 6, 67. doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2012.00067
  • Van Zuiden, M., Kavelaars, A., Geuze, E., Olff, M., & Heijnen, C. J. (2013). Predicting PTSD: Pre-existing vulnerabilities in glucocorticoid-signaling and implications for preventive interventions. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 30, 12–21. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2012.08.015
  • Vogel, S., Klumpers, F., Kroes, M. C. W., Oplaat, K. T., Krugers, H. J., Oitzl, M. S., … Fernandez, G. (2015). A stress-induced shift from trace to delay conditioning depends on the mineralocorticoid receptor. Biological Psychiatry, 78(12), 830–839. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.02.014
  • Wager, T. D, Waugh, C. E, Lindquist, M, Noll, D. C, Fredrickson, B. L, & Taylor, S. F. (2009). Brain mediators of cardiovascular responses to social threat: part i: reciprocal dorsal and ventral sub-regions of the medial prefrontal cortex and heart-rate reactivity. Neuroimage, 47(3), 821–835. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.05.043
  • Weathers, F. W., Litz, B. T., Keane, T. M., Palmieri, P. A., Marx, B. P., & Schnurr, P. P. (2013). The PTSD checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5). Scale available from the National Center for PTSD at www.ptsd.va.gov.